BE AFRAID… BE VERY AFRAID: FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FEAR OF 
VICTIMIZATION 
by
Callie Clark Hartman 
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements 
for the Degree of 
Master of Science 
in the 
Criminal Justice 
Program
YOUNGSTOWN STATE UNIVERSITY 
August, 2011 
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Be Afraid… Be Very Afraid: Factors Influencing the Fear of Victimization 
Callie Hartman 
I hereby release this thesis to the public. I understand that this thesis will be made available from 
the OhioLINK ETD Center and the Maag Library Circulation Desk for public access. I also 
authorize the University or other individuals to make copies of this thesis as needed for scholarly 
research. 
Signature: ____________________________________________________________________ 
      Callie Hartman, Student                                                                                         Date 
Approvals:
      _____________________________________________________________________ 
    Dr. Christopher M. Bellas, Thesis Advisor                                          Date 
       _____________________________________________________________________ 
      Dr. John M. Hazy, Committee Member                                                                    Date 
      _____________________________________________________________________ 
      Professor Susan W. Clutter, Committee Member                                                     Date 
      _____________________________________________________________________ 
      Peter J. Kasvinsky, Dean, School of Graduate Studies & Research     Date 
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ABSTRACT 
 The media often portrays an inner city overcome with violence. This research 
investigates whether citizens are emotionally responsive to this attention, as well as the 
self protective measures they utilize based on where they reside. Because the press 
devotes so much of its media coverage to violence, the main hypothesis to be tested here 
is that the more one is exposed to the media, the more they will be fearful of crime. The 
demographic variables included in this survey will be as follows: age, gender, race, 
average household income, and level of education. The predictor variable is the amount 
of media consumed, with the dependent variable being one’s level of fear of violent 
victimization.  Conclusions were drawn from data obtained from students attending a 
midsized urban university (N=134) in the Midwest in order to see what impact the media 
has on fear. The hypothesis that high media exposure would increase levels of fear and 
increase precautionary measure was unsupported. However, support was found for the 
hypothesis that respondents who were themselves a crime victim or knew the victim of a 
crime are more aware of the threat of victimization. Future researchers may want to 
operationalize media by other means such as specifying source of media and if this 
influences fear of crime.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………….....iii
DEDICATION ……………………………………………………………………………vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ………………………………………………………………….vii
LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………………………….viii
CHAPTERS 
I. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………….1
Statement of the Problem………………………………………………….1 
Purpose of this Study……………………………………………………...1 
Hypotheses………………………………………………………………...3
Thesis Organization……………………………………………………….4 
II. LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………….5
Perceptions of Crime………………………………………………………5 
The Media and Fear of Crime……………………………………………..6 
Gender and Fear of Crime…………………………………………………9 
Age and Fear of Crime…………………………………………………...10 
Race and Fear of Crime………………………………………………….10 
Income and Fear of Crime……………………………………………….12 
Education and Fear of Crime…………………………………………….13 
Preventative Measures and Lifestyle Choices…………………………...14 
Visual Perceptions of Neighborhoods…………………………………...15 
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Closeness of High Crime Neighborhoods and Fear of Crime…………...15 
Summary…………………………………………………………………16 
III. METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………..19
Purpose…………………………………………………………………..19
Hypotheses……………………………………………………………….20
Research Design………………………………………………………….20 
Sample……………………………………………………………………21 
Sampling Procedure……………………………………………………...22 
Summary…………………………………………………………………22 
IV. RESULTS AND FINDINGS…………………………………………...24
Design..…………………………………………………………………..24
Demographics……………………………………………………………24 
TABLE 1: Descriptive Statistics…………………………….…………...26 
Hypothesis #1…………………………………………………………….27 
TABLE 2: Hypothesis #1- Fear of Crime in Your Neighborhood v. 
Surrounding Neighborhood……………………………………………...27 
Results for Hypothesis #1………………………………………………..27 
Hypothesis #2…………………………………………………………….28 
TABLE 3: Hypothesis #2- Daily News Consumption and Levels 
of Fear……………………………………………………………………29 
Results for Hypothesis #2………………………………………………..29 
Hypothesis #3……………………………………………………………29 
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TABLE 4: Hypothesis #3- Daily News Consumption and Precautionary 
Action…………………………………………………………………….30
Results for Hypothesis #3………………………………………………..30 
Hypothesis #4…………………………………………………………….30 
TABLE 5: Hypothesis #4- Awareness and Victimization/Indirect 
Victimization……………………………………………………………..31 
Results for Hypothesis #4………………………………………………..31 
Summary…………………………………………………………………32 
V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION………………………………….33
Contributions to the Literature…………………………………………...33 
Limitations to the Present Study…………………………………………34 
Recommendations for Future Study……………………………………..36 
Conclusion……………………………………………………………….38
REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………….40 
APPENDIX A: Human Subjects Committee Approval………………………………….41 
APPENDIX B: Instrument……………………………………………………………….42 
APPENDIX C: Verbatim Responses to Question #17…………………………………..46
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DEDICATION 
To my mother and my father; without your constant love, dedication, and passion for life, this 
would not be possible. I am forever grateful. I love you both so very much.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
This endeavor would not be possible without the following people: 
My fellow graduate students and graduate assistants- your guidance and support throughout the 
years have been nothing less than extraordinary. You deserve happiness and success. 
My thesis committee advisor and mentor for several years, Dr. Christopher M. Bellas, words 
cannot express my deep gratitude for everything you have done for me. You are truly an 
inspiration. Thank you from the very bottom of my heart. 
My thesis committee members, Dr. John M. Hazy and Professor Susan W. Clutter, your 
recommendations and devotion to my education have touched my heart. Thank you for giving 
me such an opportunity. 
The entire faculty and staff of the Criminal Justice and Forensic Sciences Department, there are 
no words to express how deeply I love our department and everything we represent. I will hold 
you forever in my heart.  
Last, but certainly not least, are my friends.  Though I cannot mention every single person, there 
are those who deserve special recognition for their constant support. Janina Gasior, Morghan 
Hanni, and Jason Nelson, my oldest friends. You have never let me down. I owe you my life. 
Lindsay Allison, you will never know how many times you saved my life, thank you.  Jason 
Ludban, Racheal Pesta, and Zack Bowen- my dearest friends in graduate school, thank you for 
years of support, love, and laughter. I am so blessed to have you in my life. Joel Hartman- my 
little brother, find your dreams and run with them. I will always be there for you. 
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LIST OF TABLES 
TABLE 1: Descriptive Statistics………………………..………………………..………………26 
TABLE 2: Hypothesis #1- Fear of Crime in Your Neighborhood v. Surrounding  
Neighborhood……………………………………………………………………………………27
TABLE 3: Hypothesis #2- Daily News Consumption and Levels of Fear………………………29 
TABLE 4: Hypothesis #3- Daily News Consumption and Precautionary Action……………….30 
TABLE 5: Hypothesis #4- Awareness and Victimization/Indirect Victimization………………31 
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CHAPTER 1:  
INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
 Victimization bears an emotional and psychological effect, and depending on the 
person, could be forever present. For those who have been victimized, the continuum of 
fear may be constantly evolving.  As stated in the Bureau of Justice statistics, “In 2009, 
U.S. residents age 12 or older experienced approximately 20 million crimes, according to 
findings from the National Crime Victimization Survey; 78% (15.6 million) were 
property crimes; 22% (4.3 million) were crimes of violence; 1% (133,000) were personal 
thefts.” It is no wonder why citizens often feel the need to constantly look over their 
shoulder and distrust those around them. The numbers can be overwhelming to anyone 
who sees that violent crime occurs millions of times a year. Victimization also highlights 
the crime-fear paradox. “Groups who appear most fearful of crime are those least likely 
to be victimized; those most likely to be victimized are less fearful” (Will and McGrath, 
1995). It is important to understand the crime-fear paradox because it may explain where 
high levels of fear develop in populations who are least likely to be victimized. Similarly, 
it underscores the need for the younger population to take precautions, since they are 
more likely to be crime victims (Will and McGrath, 1995). 
Purpose of this Study
  The purpose of this research is to gain a better understanding of the fear of 
victimization. By further understanding perceptions of victimization, we are less likely to 
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focus on the random victimizations highlighted in the media and become more focused 
on rational awareness. Rational awareness means separating the emotion of fear from the 
logical reaction of awareness. 
        People react to fear of crime differently.  This difference can be influenced by a 
number of factors from demographic to situational.  The victimization literature 
highlights several demographic items which are influential regarding crime and fear such 
as: age, race, income level, and level of education.  One very important situational factor, 
which is the focus of this study, is the amount of exposure to the media and how that 
exposure impacts fear about victimization. “We all live under the spell of media 
representations of crime and violence. It is impossible to turn on our TV sets or browse 
through newspapers and magazines- and, more recently, the Internet, without coming 
upon a morbid story about the latest heinous crime, accompanied by a detailed report of 
the suspected criminal and viciousness of the act” (Madriz, 1997 p.4). The news media 
may be influential in how we perceive crime in our world. Though we have our own 
personal experience and the experiences of others to further enhance our perceptions, we 
also may be influenced by what happens to people we do not know personally. 
Sensationalized news stories grasp our attention daily. Some are even played out for 
months or years on television right before our very eyes. As a society, we are aware of 
crime, partially because of what is provided via the various media outlets.  
 The news media is not the only source by which we receive our information about 
crime and victimization. We are social creatures who share stories of what we have 
experienced and what those around us have experienced. Sharing a personal experience 
about victimization with a close friend or relative may increase that person’s fear of 
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crime or encourage them to take precautions.  With this in mind, several hypotheses were 
developed to examine the impact, if any, of both demographic and situational factors and 
their influence on one’s fear of crime.
Hypotheses
The hypotheses to be examined here are as follows: 
1. People feel safer within their own neighborhood than when they are adjacent to an 
unfamiliar neighborhood. 
2. People who spend each day watching or reading more than one hour of the news 
will be more fearful of crime than people who don’t read or watch as much news. 
3. People who spend each day watching or reading more than one hour of the news 
are more likely to take precautions in their daily life to avoid becoming a crime 
victim than people who don’t read or watch as much news. 
4. People who have been the victim of a crime or know the victim of a crime are 
more aware of their risk of victimization than those who have not been the victim 
of a crime or do not know the victim of a crime. 
 Since each person has a different perception of the world, we should seek to find 
some similarities among individuals in order to better understand the influences of fear. 
To inquire about such topics, a survey instrument was developed based on reoccurring 
themes within the literature about victimization. The survey was distributed in 
Introduction to Criminal Justice courses, and asked students about their age, gender, 
average household income, race, ethnicity, and the ways in which they receive their 
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news. Central to this research was to understand how much news they consume daily and 
its impact on their perception of criminal victimization. 
Thesis Organization     
The following chapter presents a literature review which includes the works of 
various scholars to further enhance the reader’s understanding of this research in the light 
of the literature regarding victimization and fear of crime. It is followed by an 
explanation of the methodology used, such as the research design and the analysis of 
data. Also included is a chapter which explores the results and findings, determining the 
supported and unsupported hypotheses. The final chapter will discuss limitations of the 
study and recommendations for future research. 
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CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW 
Perceptions of Crime
Those who have been the victim of a crime are more aware of vulnerabilities that 
place someone in a potentially dangerous situation. However, these are not the only 
individuals that are influenced by such fear. “Crime also affects those persons who are 
not direct victims, but who are fearful of becoming victims. This second form of 
victimization has been called indirect victimization, and fear of crime develops out of this 
indirect victimization (Toseland, 1982, p.199). Even if the fear of crime outweighs the 
actual risk of victimization, it plays a direct role in the way we choose to live our lives. 
Avoidance of certain places or behaviors is the most common reaction to this fear and 
can be seen in cultural representations in our society. “Our fear of crime, however, is not 
shaped by the official statistics. It is, rather, influenced by the personal experiences of 
ourselves and others and by cultural representations embodied in bedtime stories, fairy 
tales, media images, everyday conversations, code words, and polarized concepts of 
good/bad, black/white, men/women, rational/irrational, and victim/offender” (Madriz, 
1997, p.2). Every person’s perception of crime varies. What concerns one person may be 
of minimal risk to another. There are also various factors that influence these perceptions. 
The purpose of this research is to highlight the potential factors that may play a role in 
the fear of crime and victimization. 
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The Media and Fear of Crime
Numerous factors can be associated with fear of crime. The media utilizes various 
outlets to share current news stories. These stories do not have to be localized for an 
impact to be made. Daniel Romer, Kathleen Hall Jamieson, and Sean Aday state in their 
2003 paper, Television, News and the Cultivation of Fear of Crime, that “although the 
news source presumes to give viewers factual stories about their region, it relies heavily 
on sensational coverage of crime and other mayhem with particular emphasis on 
homicide and violence” (p.89). Local news stations may share stories that are in the 
national spotlight with the intent to grasp viewer attention and gain ratings. 
Sensationalized crime stories certainly have an impact on how the viewer begins to fear 
crime, even if the chances of being brutally victimized are minimal. “Fear of crime and 
its impact on the general society have arguably become a problem as serious as crime 
itself. A criminal incident that has one or two victims can frighten scores of people and 
alter the way they live and the way they relate to other members of society. Fear of crime 
weakens the sense of community, decreases social solidarity among its members and 
creates suspicion of strangers and erosion of mutual trust and cooperation” (Madriz, 
1997, p.6). 
 The random acts of violence so often shared in the media are poor examples of 
the crime that citizens should be truly concerned with; common crimes committed 
generally by people they know. “Repeated exposure to stories showing ubiquitous and 
unpredictable crime can affect judgments of both personal and societal risk” (Romer, 
Jamieson, and Aday, 2003, p.90). The crime that citizens might fear is related to the 
amount of believability they place into the accuracy of the news media. Though citizens 
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would like to assume that crime reporting mistakes are not made by the media, this is not 
the case. There may not be a specific intent to mislead the public, but there have been 
instances where a story was sensationalized as being a random act of violence that wasn’t 
random at all. For example, in 1991, the Washington Post published a story of a soldier 
who had just returned home from the Gulf War. Army Specialist Anthony Riggs was a 
soldier who had come home to a once pleasant neighborhood which had turned into a city 
riddled with “crime, crack, and occasional bursts of gunfire” (Glassner, 1999, p.23). 
Riggs was shot and murdered one night shortly after returning home from Iraq in a 
“random and senseless” act of violence. National attention had much of its focus on 
crime, the war on drugs and the increase of gang violence. Pressure from citizens to 
discover the perpetrator led police to find a gun belonging to the brother of Riggs’ wife in 
a nearby trash can. The brother had confessed to committing the killing because of a 
promise from Riggs’ wife to share a life insurance policy. There had been feuding 
between the couple for some time, which was the possible motive for the man’s death 
(though charges had been dropped due to lack of evidence). “Reporters cannot be blamed 
for failing to possess this information prior to its discovery by the police, but had they 
been a little skeptical or made a few phone calls they almost would have certainly 
stumbled on at least some aspects of the truth” (Glassner, 1999, p.25). Information 
obtained from the media is often taken as the whole truth from the public when in fact the 
evidence points in a different direction. 
 Television, newspapers, and the internet are some common sources where citizens 
gain information about crime. If every single news story was taken at face value without 
follow up and validation, then it is possible the fear of crime faced by citizens would 
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increase. Also, reporters and television news personalities should carefully choose their 
wording as well as understand the weight of their words. Madriz (1997, p.159) suggests 
that, “crime has, indeed, become code language for race, gender, and class. The general 
public should be made aware of the way in which such vocabulary is derogatory and 
stigmatizing. Because of their influence on the audience; reporters, editors, TV and radio 
commentators must be held especially responsible for their language. Images of criminals 
and victims have a profound unconscious and emotional influence on the public, shaping 
people’s fears; influencing and reinforcing everyday discourse about crime, criminals, 
and victims; and eventually, shaping criminal justice practices.” The world portrayed by 
these news sources are chaotic and dangerous to everyone, not just those living in 
deteriorated urban cities.
 Level of fear can also be influenced by where we inhabit. “People who live in 
cities tend to hold higher levels of fear because cities and other urban areas tend to have 
higher crime rates than rural areas” (Howard, 1999 p.3). Those who live in or close to 
urban neighborhoods will certainly hear more about inner city violence and therefore may 
become more fearful of victimization. Similarly, those who live farther from areas with 
relatively low crime are still fearful of victimization for they too have been witness to the 
news stories which portray the possible random and violent victimization in the inner 
city. Understanding the impact that the media has on citizens may help us explain if 
levels of fear are associated with their exposure to violence in the media.  
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Gender and Fear of Crime
 Demographic factors may contribute to the fear of crime. Some research even 
suggest that the “fear/news relationship varies by social circumstances, such as sex, race, 
age, income, and education” (Chircos, Padgett, and Gertz, 2000 p.756). There is a 
“possibility that men and women experience fear for different reasons” (Schafer, 
Huebner, and Bynum, 2006, p.285). Women are often more fearful of crime for they 
believe they are unable to defend themselves against an attack, however, males are much 
more likely to be the victims of crime. The literature on feminism may shed light as to 
why women are more fearful of crime. This fear may come from gender role 
assignments. “For women, the fear of crime has the unique ability to organize consent or 
unify views around ‘proper’ gender roles: women cannot engage in certain activities 
because it is dangerous for them to do so, whereas men have no such limitations” 
(Madriz, 1997, p.2). If women are constantly told throughout their lifetime that they 
aren’t able to or should not engage in certain activities due to possible victimization, then 
their sense of independence is somewhat diminished. For example, when a woman is 
walking alone at night, it is often a male who suggests he should walk her to her vehicle. 
The dependency upon masculinity to protect her from criminals is culturally induced. 
Being fearful of crime and being cautious are very different concepts. A person should 
take measures to prevent the chances of victimization. However, when a woman begins 
to feel that no ordinary task can be accomplished without some form of protection or 
preventative measure, then the fear of crime has overwhelmed her life.  
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Age and Fear of Crime
 A second demographic variable is age. “Advanced age is related to increasing 
chances of being fearful of crime” (Toseland, 1982, p.203). There are many reasons why 
this is possible. The elderly tend to become frail with the passage of time and their ability 
to defend themselves during an attack is lessened (Toseland, 1982). Unlike a person in 
their 20s or 30s, most elderly persons will lack the physical strength to fight back during 
an attack. The fear of physical injury alone would perhaps increase fear among the 
elderly. Victimization is also medically costly, physically painful, and emotionally 
traumatizing. Also, “the elderly, frequently lacking a household traveling companion and 
the financial resources to purchase protective devices and avoid dangerous sites, may 
respond to fear by constraining their social behavior more than do younger people” 
(Liska, Sanchirico, and Reed, 1988, p.828). The fear of victimization often inhibits those 
who feel they are unable to protect themselves in certain situations. The elderly will 
avoid leaving home by themselves for fear of victimization.  
Race and Fear of Crime
 Race, as in many academic discussions, is controversial. While people do not 
want to admit that they are fearful of certain races when it comes to crime and 
victimization, some research suggests that there is a racialization of crime. “The 
racialization of crime means associating criminality with races which increases fear of 
victimization” (Mears & Stewart, 2010, p.34). 
  The media can be held accountable for the racialization of crime. There has been 
a “growing body of research that indicates that local news relies heavily on a ‘crime news 
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script’ that casts minority group members- and African Americans in particular- in the 
featured role of violent perpetrator” (Mears & Stewart, 2010, p.34). The perception of 
minorities can therefore influence fearfulness, regardless if the claims can be 
substantiated.
  The racial composition of a neighborhood is also thought to have an impact on 
fear of crime. David Eitle and John Taylor discovered that respondents reported a greater 
fear of crime when residing in places with relatively higher proportions of African- 
American residents (2010, p.1103). This could possibly be related to the “racialization of 
crime” where minorities are viewed as a perceived threat. Often referred to as the 
minority group threat theory, this notion seeks to explain why some citizens associate 
crime with race, which in turn could influence fear. Research thus far on the idea of a 
“minority threat” has revealed that perceived risk of crime is associated with the relative 
size of the minority population” (Eitle & Taylor, 2008, p.1104). Therefore, the minority 
population of a particular city has a two-prong effect: first, on the perception of crime in 
a community, and second on levels of fear based on that perception.
 Minority group threat theory suggests that minorities are viewed as a threat to 
safety. Whites may view African Americans, Hispanics, and other racial minorities as 
causes of crime, which in turn increases their fear of victimization. There is, however, 
research to the contrary. Some scholars have found that “non-white men feel less safe 
than white men, possibly suggesting that because a disproportionally high number of 
minorities live in impoverished and segregated areas, their victimization is higher” 
(Jordan & Gabbidon, 2010, p.282). Neighborhoods suffering from social disorganization 
may produce citizens who are more fearful than those who live in neighborhoods with a 
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relatively low crime rate and a low minority population.  Minority neighborhoods with 
high crime may have more fearful citizens because of constant victimization.  By taking 
into account the perceptions of race and crime, we may gain a better understanding of the 
causes of fear. 
Income and Fear of Crime
 In terms of income, research conducted by Jeffery Will and John McGrath (1995) 
suggest that, “the poor (and near poor) are significantly more likely to show levels of 
neighborhood fear than those who are not poor” (p.166). One explanation could be the 
limited housing options available to those in financial distress. “Higher levels of fear 
among persons with lower incomes may be attributed to the neighborhood context under 
which they reside, especially if these areas are plagued by disorder and crime” 
(Scarborough, Like-Haislip, Novak, Lucas, and Alarid, 2010, p.819). Minimal security, 
little lighting, and unfavorable residents are some of the concerns that may increase fear 
among those living in lower class neighborhoods. “For example, physical disorder (e.g., 
litter, graffiti and vandalism) and ‘suburban incivilities’ (e.g., presentation and upkeep of 
properties) can amplify feelings of insecurity and these negative visual cues can deter 
residents from engaging in physical activity” (Foster, Giles-Corti, and Knuiman, 2010, 
p.1156). This specific aspect should have nothing to do with race but rather the income 
level alone. Income places people within a certain range of living. Without the luxuries of 
security systems and safe housing options, low-income citizens are vulnerable to 
victimization. If citizens are aware of their higher risk of victimization, then they will 
essentially become more fearful. For example, a person who does not know, or care to 
know, the current crime situation in their neighborhood will most likely not take the time 
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to take precautions because they have little fear.  However, a person who is very aware of 
the crime situation in their neighborhood may have a higher fear of crime and therefore 
may want to take more precautions, yet financial resources may not make this possible.  
Most disheartening is the fact these residents are often trapped within such a lifestyle. 
Most of these citizens are unable to choose better housing based on their low income.  
Furthermore, if they were to become the victims of crime they would lack the means to 
move away from that neighborhood, further increasing their fear of re-victimization.  
Education and Fear of Crime
 Education may also play a role in the fear of victimization. It’s hypothesized in 
this study that people with some form of higher education may be less fearful of crime. 
Researchers suggest that, “it seems reasonable to assume that education, as an indicator 
of life style, affects the level of socializing or entertainment outside of the home” (Liska, 
Sanchirico, and Reed, 1988, p.830). Level of education is related to income; those with a 
higher income have the ability to avoid certain situations or establishments if they choose 
to do so. They will often opt to avoid those neighborhoods or activities which would 
place them in danger. If they are avoiding such areas because they have the means to do 
so, then they may be less fearful of victimization. It is also possible that because of a 
person’s higher education they are able to reasonably deduce the actual dangerousness of 
a situation. Though they may gain information about crime from the media or the 
experiences of others, they may refuse to accept it at face value, instead, relying on 
multiple sources to confirm their suspicions about victimization.  
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 Those with higher levels of education generally have more of an income to utilize 
on protective measures, and they may fear crime less because they have taken those 
measures. “While surveys show that people purchase various devices, such as guns, extra 
locks, outside lighting, watch dogs, anti-burglary equipment and insurance, as well as 
learning self-defense, to protect themselves and their homes from crime, those who fear 
crime the most are not necessarily the most protective” (Liska, Sanchirico, and Reed, 
1988, p.828). It is possible that those who fear crime the most are unable to afford 
preventative tools, and therefore become fearful of their vulnerability. Therefore, lack of 
education and income may be predictors of increased fear of crime.  
Preventative Measure and Lifestyle Choice
 Urban areas with high crime are inhabited by citizens that are aware of the 
potential risks of crime and victimization. However, there are also citizens who are 
constantly fearful of victimization. Fear and awareness are distinguishable concepts. The 
former is an emotional response, while the latter is a logical attempt to avoid 
victimization (Jordan & Gabbidon, 2010). Fear of crime may cause a person to avoid 
certain activities and locations all together. They may also take preventative measures to 
an extreme, such as carrying a concealed weapon. Their perception of crime is 
heightened by media influences as well as social interaction with others. Their level of 
fear is somewhat unreasonably high. A person who is aware of potential risks is not a 
person consumed by fear, but conscious of placing themselves in less safe situations 
(Jordan & Gabbidon, 2010 p. 35).  They do not live in fear but do take notice of the 
potential threats that certain situations have. For example, a citizen in fear would avoid 
the urban downtown nightlife all together while the person aware of potential risks would 
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still attend the downtown nightlife scene but take precautions such as parking in a well lit 
area, walking with a group of friends, and attend only those establishments where one can 
feel safe. 
 People differ in how they react to crime (Liska, Sanchirico, and Reed, 1988). 
Taking into account the various life style choices, levels of education, amount of income, 
age, gender, and amount of faith placed in the media of each person would be impossible. 
All of these various demographics coupled with our own personal perceptions, 
experiences, and interactions with others in social groups influence the way we perceive 
crime and how we will react to it.  
Visual Perception of Neighborhoods
 The visual perception of the neighborhood itself may also increase levels of fear. 
“Visual cues of disorder such as graffiti, public intoxication, garbage, and abandoned cars 
can signify to criminal offenders that residents are indifferent to what goes on in the 
neighborhood or lack the social cohesion needed to thwart these and more serious threats 
to the community such as violent crime” (Wilson and Kelling, 1982; Scarborough, et al. 
2010, p. 821).  If citizens feel that these cues indicate low levels of safety then they are 
more likely to become fearful. Even if the people that reside in those neighborhoods are 
well-intentioned, their perception of the neighborhood signals negativity. 
Closeness of High Crime Neighborhoods and Fear of Crime
 The proximity to a high crime neighborhood may also increase levels of fear. It 
may be possible that the closer one gets to the center of a dangerous neighborhood, the 
more fear these residents will have. Citizens are worried about the increase of crime as 
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their city broadens; they are concerned with an infiltration of criminal activity. These 
citizens may be apathetic with the high levels of crime that occur in other neighborhoods 
as long as it does not spread into their own territory. They may feel safe in their own 
neighborhood but as they begin to enter potentially dangerous neighborhoods, their fear 
begins to increase. There may be a “mistrust of others, anxiety, perceived risk, fear of 
strangers, or concern about deteriorating neighborhoods or declining national morality 
(Scarborough, et al. 2010, p.820).
 For citizens living in a safe place, going to a neighborhood with a reputation for 
high crime may cause them some fear and even cause them to increase their preventative 
measures. They may not take preventative measures such as locking their car doors to 
make a quick trip into their local gas station but may do so in a neighborhood that they 
feel is unsafe. People will avoid going to these areas, which further enhances the negative 
reputation of the neighborhood. There are economic consequences for neighborhoods 
plagued by fear. Restaurants, theaters, and other establishments will have fewer patrons 
resulting in financial foreclosure.  If we are to understand the implications that proximity 
of crime have on citizens, we may be able to encourage people to leave their fears at 
home, and the effect could prove beneficial for the economic vitality of the 
neighborhood.
Summary
 The literature thus far has demonstrated that the following variables (gender, age, 
race, income, and education) are related to the fear of crime and perceptions of 
victimization. Other considerations associated with fear of crime would be the 
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preventative measures taken by citizens, perceptions of crime via news sources, visual 
appearance of the neighborhood in which citizens reside, and proximity to high crime 
neighborhoods. There are various reasons why people fear crime. Gender certainly plays 
a role in the fear of crime as research has repeatedly demonstrated that women are much 
more fearful of victimization. This can possibly be attributed to gender role assignments.  
 Age and fear of crime can be explained via lack of guardianship and potential 
physical weaknesses that the elderly may encounter if victimized. As the literature on 
victimization points out, senior citizens are the least likely to suffer violent victimization 
rather than those in their teens and twenties who are far more likely to be victimized 
because of lifestyle choices.  
 Race also influences fear. Some citizens feel that certain races are more likely to 
commit crime, which results in the fear of a minority group. The racial composition of a 
neighborhood may also cause citizens to associate criminality and victimization with that 
particular neighborhood. Race is not an indicator of criminality but the racialization of 
crime via the media and other sources may be one of the causes for such a phenomenon. 
Income of a particular person may enhance the fear of crime due to the choices available 
for personal safety and housing options. Those in poverty are not able to afford the 
luxuries of home security systems and are not able to choose from a housing market 
outside of their economic means. This leaves the person often choosing to live in a 
neighborhood that is affordable to them, but not necessarily safe from victimization. A 
lack of choices based on income may increase one’s fear.  
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 Another demographic that may influence fear of victimization is education. Those 
with a higher level of education may reasonably calculate their possible victimization 
which may reduce fear. Also, those with a higher level of education tend to take in more 
income which allows them to choose to live in safer neighborhoods and avoid areas with 
high crime. People take steps daily to avoid becoming the victim of crime. These 
preventative measures do not necessarily mean that they are fearful of crime. It may 
mean that they are aware of potential risks and therefore take precautions such as buying 
home security systems and avoiding “unsafe” neighborhoods.
 Finally, the appearance of a neighborhood can influence a person’s fear. If the 
neighborhood is riddles with abandoned buildings and lack of security, then people are 
more likely to avoid those areas. Avoidance is one preventative measure that people take 
to escape the possibility of becoming a crime victim.  
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CHAPTER 3:  
METHODOLOGY
Purpose
 The purpose of this research is to understand the possible relationships among the 
different factors that possibly influence one’s fear of crime. Specifically this thesis 
focuses on the amount of media one exposes themselves to, past experiences with direct 
and indirect victimization, if an individual takes precautions to avoid becoming a victim, 
and if an individual feels safer in his/her own neighborhood compared to surrounding 
neighborhoods.
 The demographic variables that could potentially influence fear of crime would 
be: age, income, race, education and sex. As previously discussed, the wide reaching 
influence of the media on many different audiences has the possibility to increase levels 
of fear among residents. It may increase fear of their neighborhood or fear of surrounding 
neighborhoods. Citizens with a higher level of education, and subsequently a higher 
income, may be less fearful of victimization for they have the means to avoid such 
neighborhoods. Those with a lower income may be more fearful of crime because they do 
not have the means to take preventative measures. They are also most likely to live in a 
development or a neighborhood that lacks proper security and may house people with 
criminal tendencies.  
 This chapter is a description of how the data were obtained as well as the design 
of the survey instrument, the sample, and the analytic plan. The following hypotheses 
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were crucial in determining how to create an instrument that would be most beneficial in 
gathering data for this project.
Hypotheses
 There are four hypotheses tested to determine what if any factors influence one’s 
fear of crime.
1. People feel safer within their own neighborhood than when they are adjacent 
to an unfamiliar neighborhood. 
2. People who spend each day watching or reading more than one hour of the 
news will be more fearful of crime than people who don’t read or watch as 
much news. 
3. People who spend each day watching or reading more than one hour of the 
news are more likely to take precautions in their daily life to avoid becoming a 
crime victim than people who don’t read or watch as much news. 
4. People who have been the victim of a crime or know the victim of a crime are 
more aware of their risk of victimization than those who have not been the 
victim of a crime or do not know the victim of a crime. 
Research Design
 A survey was composed to query students about their fear of becoming a crime 
victim.  The survey included demographic questions such as: age, gender, race, 
education, and income. Other questions asked how participants receive their source of 
news, how often they watch news programs/read news sources, and how news regarding 
crime affects their perception of their own possible victimization. The instrument also 
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included a set of questions asking participants about precautions they take to prevent 
victimization, how safe they feel in their own neighborhood compared to surrounding 
neighborhoods, and their direct and/or indirect experiences with victimization coupled 
with their level of awareness based on such experiences. The questions are set up to 
differentiate the perceived risk of crime from actual fear of crime.   
 The predictor variable in this case is the media and its influence on levels of fear.  
To that end, the survey inquired about where students receive the majority of their news 
and how much time they invested in their chosen news source. The survey also asked if 
students thought that news coverage increased their awareness of becoming a victim and 
if they took precautions in their life to avoid victimization. The instrument then asked if 
the participant had ever been the victim of a crime or  personally known someone to be 
the victim of a crime.  
 Questions ten through fifteen were demographic; specifically, age, current major 
in college, gender, race/ethnicity, class rank, and household income. Lastly, students 
were asked to specify what crime was like in their neighborhood in comparison to 
surrounding neighborhoods. The final question called for a qualitative response, which 
gave respondents the opportunity to explain what causes them to fear crime the most. The 
statements received from this final question were recorded and the other questions from 
the instrument were coded for data entry in SPSS.  
Sample
 The unit of analysis for this study are students enrolled in four sections of 
Introduction to Criminal Justice courses at Youngstown State University (n=134).  Class 
sizes ranged from twenty-one to sixty-four students. The sample was limited to the 
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students who were in class on the day that the instrument was administered and 
volunteered to take the anonymous survey.  
Sampling Procedure
 The four Introduction to Criminal Justice classes were chosen based upon sample 
convenience.  Students were given an anonymous survey which was distributed by the 
professor or teaching assistant of that class. This was to give students the opportunity to 
feel no pressure by the researcher to complete the survey. After the instrument and 
purpose of the research was explained to the class and the informed consent had been 
understood by the participants, the researcher left the room.  The instrument was 
comprised of seventeen questions with a range of possible responses and a qualitative 
question at the end. The surveys were then brought to the researcher in a sealed envelope 
to ensure anonymity. Once all surveys had been collected, they were numbered to 
maintain organization for future reference. The surveys had no names and there was no 
way to determine who had completed the survey or which class they had come from. The 
surveys were kept confidential and only the researcher had access to the data. 
Summary
 The methodology was designed to explore the relationship between (a) the 
closeness of an unfamiliar surrounding neighborhood and fear of crime, (b) the amount of 
time an individual watches or reads the news and fear of crime, (c) the amount of 
exposure to the news and if the individual takes precautions in their daily life to avoid 
victimization, and (d) if knowing a victim of a crime or being the victim of a crime would 
influence an individual to be more aware of potential victimization. The instrument was 
developed to address the hypotheses as well as gain a better understanding of the 
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demographics of those who fear crime and victimization. The following chapter will 
explain the results and the findings derived from the instrument.  
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CHAPTER 4:  
RESULTS AND FINDINGS 
Design
 Questionnaires were distributed in four Introduction to Criminal Justice classes at 
a medium sized university in northeastern Ohio. There were 142 surveys total and 134 
were validated (a 94% response rate). The instrument was coded and then entered via 
Excel. This information was then transferred over to the Statistical Package for the Social 
Sciences (SPSS) Version 15 for analysis. 
Demographics
 The youngest participant was seventeen years old and the oldest was sixty-two, 
with the average being nineteen. Females comprised 54.2% of the respondents and 45.8% 
were male (four respondents did not answer). The race/ethnicity of the students surveyed 
were 68.9% white, 20% African American, 5.3% Hispanic, 1.5% Asian, and 1.5% other. 
A few of the surveys included missing data regarding the questions about race/ethnicity 
or gender. Table 1 shows a breakdown of the sample for race/ethnicity, gender, 
household income, class rank, and college major.  
 Almost half of the students were criminal justice and nursing majors while the 
remaining students were from other majors. Introduction to Criminal Justice is an elective 
class for most majors therefore it is open to students from any field of study. However, 
many of the students in the class were criminal justice majors (23%) with the second 
largest major being nursing and EMT students, 17% of respondents surveyed. Following 
this group were students majoring in the sciences (6.7%), specifically majoring in biology 
or chemistry. The selection “other” was 48.1% of the remaining respondents. The 
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responses for “other” included undecided majors, Theatre, Art, History, Mathematics, 
English, Engineering, Business, Political Science, Fashion and Merchandising,
Psychology,  and Sociology.
 The majority of students who participated in the study were college freshman 
(45.2%) followed by college sophomores (26.7%). College juniors and seniors were each 
12.6% of the students. Only one graduate student (0.7%) participated in the study.  
 The economic status of participants was diverse. The students were asked to 
estimate to the best of their ability their total household income. Those respondents who 
stated their total household income was less than $10,000 were 16.3% of those sampled; 
next were those who responded that their combined household income was between 
$10,000-$29,999 which was 11.1% of those sampled; those who stated their combined 
household income was $30,000-$49,999 were 16.3% of the sample; lastly, 17.8% 
reported an average annual income of $50,000-$69,999. Over 60% of students surveyed 
noted an annual family income of below $70,000. Not surprisingly, for an economically 
deprived area, as the annual household income approached $100,000, the percentages 
decreased. The following is a table for the demographics of the sample: 
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TABLE 1: Descriptive Statistics 
Demographics (n=134)   Frequency Percent 
Gender
Females 71 52.6
Males 60 44.4
Race/ Ethnicity 
Caucasian 93 68.9
African  American 27 20.0
Hispanic 7 5.2
American Indian 0 0.0
Asian 2 1.5
Other 2 1.5
Major
Criminal Justice 31 23.0
RN 23 17.0
Science (bio/chem) 9 6.7
Other 65 48.1
Rank
Freshman 61 45.2
Sophomore 36 26.7
Junior 17 12.6
Senior 17 12.6
Graduate Student 1 0.7
Income 
Less then 10,000 22 16.3
10,000-29,999 15 11.1
30,000-49,999 22 16.3
50,000-69,999 24 17.8
70,000-99,999 19 14.1
100,000-119,999 10 7.4
120,000-149,999 7 5.2
150,000 or more 1 0.7
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Hypothesis #1
 This research focuses on four hypotheses. The first hypothesis was, “People feel 
safer within their own neighborhood than when they are adjacent to a surrounding 
neighborhood.” This was analyzed by comparing the two Likert scale questions to 
determine the median level of fear. It was predicted that people would be less fearful in 
their own neighborhood and more fearful in surrounding neighborhoods they believe 
could be high crime areas. The rationale for this prediction was that people fear areas that 
are unfamiliar to them. As previously stated, this often comes from the perception of 
crime illuminated by the media. 
TABLE 2: Hypothesis #1- Fear of Crime in Your Neighborhood v. Surrounding 
Neighborhood
Hypothesis # 1     
    
Your Neighborhood, N=134   Surrounding Neighborhood, N=133 
Median = 4   Median = 4 
1, Very Fearful = 1.5%   1, Very Fearful = 2.3% 
2, Somewhat Fearful = 6.0%   2,Somewhat Fearful = 5.3% 
3, Slightly Fearful = 18.7%   3, Slightly Fearful = 29.3% 
4, Little Fear = 26.1%   4, Little Fear = 26.3% 
5, No Fear = 47.8%   5, No Fear = 36.8% 
Results for Hypothesis #1
 Those who were considered to be “overall fearful” in their own neighborhood 
included those who were “very fearful” 1.5%, “somewhat fearful” 6%, and “slightly 
fearful”, 18.7% (responses of 1, 2, and 3). Possessing fear in their neighborhood 
represented 26.2% of respondents. Therefore, the findings suggest that 73.8% of 
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respondents are not fearful in their own neighborhood. The median was 4, which suggests 
that the majority of people have little fear concerning fear in their own neighborhood.
 When it came to surrounding neighborhoods, those who were considered to be 
fearful were condensed from responses 1, 2, or 3, just as before. Those who indicated 
they were “not fearful” comprised responses 4 and 5 on the Likert scale. The sum then of 
those who were considered fearful of surrounding neighborhoods was 36.9%; the 
remaining 63.1% of responses were considered not fearful of surrounding neighborhoods.
 Hypothesis one was not supported. People were not more fearful of surrounding 
neighborhoods than their own. Though people were slightly more fearful in a surrounding 
neighborhood, it was not a large difference. The feelings of safety were almost equal with 
63.1% being not fearful in a surrounding neighborhood and 73.8% being not fearful in 
their own neighborhood.
Hypothesis #2
 The second hypothesis was, “People who are more exposed to the media will be 
more fearful of crime.” This was analyzed by using a cross-tabulation of the amount of 
time spent watching or reading the news and their fear of crime. It was predicted that 
those individuals who watched (or read) more than one hour of news coverage daily 
would have an increased fear of crime. The rationale for this hypothesis was that those 
individuals who spend more time watching or reading the news would be more aware of 
the crime problem, which in turn would increase their fear.  
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TABLE 3: Hypothesis #2- Daily News Consumption and Levels of Fear (n=134) 
Hypothesis # 2 
Level of Fear News Consumption Per Day 
  Low (less than 1 hour) High (1 hour or more) 
No to Low Fear 63% 64% 
High Fear 37% 36% 
Results for Hypothesis #2
 News consumption was identified by asking respondents how much media they 
are exposed to on a daily basis. Those who were exposed to lower amounts of news had 
no to low levels of fear. Statistically, this was 62.8% of the sample. Those with high 
levels of fear and consumed less than one hour of news daily were 37.2% of the sample.  
Participants with no to low levels of fear in this category were 64.1% of the sample 
population while the remaining 35.9% reported having high levels of fear. Those who 
consumed high levels of news media daily were not significantly more fearful of 
victimization than those who consumed low levels of news. The influence of news media 
in this study were not as large as suggested in the original hypothesis. 
Hypothesis #3
 The third hypothesis was, “People who spend each day exposed to news media of 
more than one hour take precautions in their daily life to avoid becoming a victim of 
crime”. This was determined by comparing the responses to the question asking the 
amount of time one is exposed to the media, and if the person takes precautions in their 
daily life to avoid victimization. This was also investigated by using a cross-tabulation. It 
was predicted that those who spend more than one hour a day watching or reading about 
the news would take extra precautions in their daily life. The rationale for this prediction 
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was that individuals who spend more time watching the news or reading about the news 
would become fearful for their own safety and take precautionary measures to avoid 
victimization.  
TABLE 4: Hypothesis #3- Daily News Consumption and Precautionary Action 
(n=134)
Hypothesis #3 
No or Low 
News 
An Hour or More News 
(High)
Take Precautions 75% 67%
Do Not Take 
Precautions 25% 33% 
Results for Hypothesis #3
 Of the participants who reported no to low levels of news consumption, 75% 
reported taking precautions in their daily life to avoid victimization. The remaining 25% 
of respondents with no to low levels of news consumption did not take precautions in 
their daily life to avoid victimization. Of the individuals who were classified as 
consuming high amounts of news daily, 67.5% reported taking precautions in their daily 
life to avoid victimization while the remaining 32.5% did not take precautions. The 
hypothesis was not supported. People who had higher daily news consumption did not 
take more precautions than those who had lower levels of news consumption. There was 
no statistically significant relationship between the two variables. 
Hypothesis #4
 The last hypothesis was, “People who have been the victim of a crime or know 
the victim of a crime are more aware of their risks of victimization.” This was determined 
by analyzing the responses to the question asking those who had been or had known 
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victims of crime if this increased their awareness about potential victimization. It was 
predicted that those respondents who had been the victim of a crime or had known the 
victim of a crime would be more aware of the risks of victimization. The justification for 
such a hypothesis was based on the notion previously discussed that those victimized or 
had known other victims would fear a second victimization and therefore be more aware 
of the risks of crime. These would also be the participants who take more precautions in 
their everyday life to avoid a second victimization.
TABLE 5: Hypothesis #4- Awareness and Direct/Indirect Victimization 
Hypothesis # 4 
Know a Victim or Have Been a 
Victim 
No More Aware of Crime  21.10%
More Aware of Crime 65.40%
This does not apply to me 13.50%
Results for Hypothesis #4
 The respondents who had reported being the victim of a crime and/or knowing the 
victim of a crime were asked if this has made them more aware of potential victimization. 
This hypothesis was supported, in that 65% of respondents stated they were more aware 
when they were victims or knew someone who was a victim. Of the sample, 21.1% of 
participants reported that being a victim and/or knowing a victim of crime did not make 
them more aware of crime and did not change their perception about crime. The data has 
showed that 65.4% of people in this survey who had been a victim or had known the 
victim of a crime were more aware of the possibility of crime and victimization. Of the 
sample, 13.5% of respondents did not know a crime victim or were not crime victims in 
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the past. It appears that the media had little to no influence on precautionary measures, 
while personally knowing a victim or being a victim mattered greatly. There seems to be 
a higher emotional response to fear of crime if it is on a personal level rather than stories 
heard through the media.   
Summary
 This chapter discussed the demographics of the sample as well as the results and 
findings for the hypotheses of this research. Hypothesis #1 was not shown to be 
statistically significant in this research; people felt just as safe in surrounding 
neighborhoods as they did in their own neighborhood. Hypothesis #2 was also not shown 
to be statistically significant in this research; people who consume high amounts of news 
daily were not more fearful of crime. Hypothesis #3 also lacked statistical significance; 
people who consume high amounts of news daily did not take extra precautions in their 
daily life to avoid victimization. However, hypothesis #4 was supported. Individuals who 
had known a victim of a crime or had been the victim of a crime were more aware of the 
risks of victimization and crime. The following chapter will present the discussion and 
conclusion from this research. 
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CHAPTER 5:  
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 
 The purpose of this research was to determine if exposure to news media had an 
impact on fear regarding crime. Other factors taken into account were precautionary 
measures by individuals and awareness of those who had been victimized or had known a 
crime victim. Fear of victimization is perceived differently by each individual. Personal 
experiences influence the way we view the world around us. What one person perceives 
as a serious threat may only increase awareness of victimization in another.  
 Four hypotheses were tested in this thesis. The hypotheses were created 
specifically to focus on levels of fear in one’s own neighborhood and unfamiliar 
surrounding neighborhoods, exposure to news media and increased levels of fear, and the 
link between fear and direct/indirect victimization. Only one of the four hypotheses was 
supported: individuals who have been victims or have known victims are more aware of 
crime than those who have not been victims or have not known victims. Media appeared 
to have little influence on the fear of victimization. Further, the qualitative responses to 
question #17 have shown that only six of the 134 respondents felt that the media was an 
influence on their fear of crime. The remainder of this chapter will discuss limitations to 
this research and recommendations for future research. 
Contributions to the Literature
 While not all hypotheses were supported, this endeavor helps researchers to build 
a better foundation for future research. Those who are fearful of victimization often live a 
compromised lifestyle. It is hoped that this research emphasized the need for citizens to 
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know the risks of potential victimization and not to rely on assumptions portrayed in the 
media. 
  Fear may come from a lack of knowledge and exaggerated tales within the 
media. Fear coupled with misinformation means we are not utilizing our capital 
effectively and efficiently. When we are not utilizing our resources effectively, we are 
essentially wasting what precious capital is available to the criminal justice system.  
Hopefully this research will also influence law enforcement to communicate with 
their community about the real risks of crime, and how to avoid victimization instead of 
relying on the media’s sensationalized cases. Enhancing our understanding about fear of 
victimization may contribute to previous methods of research such as focusing on the 
personal experiences of direct and indirect victimization as a major factor which 
influences the fear of crime. This research may encourage citizens to be more aware and 
protective instead of fearful. Ultimately, emotions that inhibit the daily life of citizens is 
important to examine.
Limitations to the Present Study
 There are limitations to this study as with any research. The sample size was 
limited to college students in Introduction to Criminal Justice classes at a mid-sized 
university in northeast Ohio. While the sample size was acceptable for this project, these 
results cannot be generalized. The sample size was limited to students enrolled only in 
Introduction to Criminal Justice classes and to those students who were present and 
volunteered to complete the survey on the day it was distributed. The classes selected 
were a convenience sample: random sample may have reported different results. 
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 A second limitation to the study is the demographic diversity of the participants. 
While the university in this study has both traditional and non-traditional students, 
diversity in age was much lower than expected (that is, there was not much variation in 
age). Some studies suggest that as one gets older, their level of fear regarding 
victimization increases (Toseland, 1982, p.203). However, there was only one subject 
who was identified as sixty-two. The majority of subjects fell within the ages of 18-22. 
The response of this one individual, though important, is not enough to generalize any 
connection to fear of crime and age. The majority of respondents in this study were 
young and more likely to be victimized due to lifestyle choices, rather than fear alone.
Similarly, there is a lack of racial and ethnic diversity in the sample. While the sample 
produced some variation, it would be beneficial if there were a more diverse student 
population. The overwhelming majority of students surveyed were Caucasian and 
African American. The level of other races and ethnicities were minimal. As stated in the 
literature review, the minority population (which could include Asians, Hispanics, and 
others) are much more likely to be victimized than whites. This may be a factor that 
increases levels of fear. Also in terms of demographics comes the issue of gender. Men 
may be less likely to answer about their true fearfulness of crime due to cultural 
expectations of masculinity.  
 Another limitation to this research was potential bias. First, the instrument used 
was a self-assessment. Due to this, some students may be bias in how they chose to 
respond to certain questions on the survey. Also, students sampled for this survey were 
enrolled in an introductory criminal justice course. Although some students enrolled in 
this course chose it as an elective, the majority of participants were Criminal Justice 
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majors. Those individuals interested in the field of criminal justice or those who have 
chosen it as their major may already be predisposed via personal experience and media 
outlets to the fear of crime. It may be possible that personal experiences have influenced 
their beliefs. It also may be possible that they learned more about crime and victimization 
from their Introduction to Criminal Justice class since the survey was administered at the 
end of the semester. 
 A final limitation may be accuracy. While some questions required the 
participants to make assumptions to the best of their ability, some students may have 
answered untruthfully. There is no way to truly know if all 134 responses were honest 
since it was an anonymous survey.  
Recommendations for Future Study
 The sample population for a future study should be more robust. Future studies 
would be more reliable the greater the number of respondents. One recommendation for 
future research would be to conduct a comparative analysis with a sample population 
more geographically diverse. This research had a sample population of students from a 
single university. While somewhat diverse, it would be interesting to conduct the same 
study at a university with demographics very different from the ones involved here. To 
survey an area with a more diverse minority population may yield different results when 
it comes to levels of fear.  
 Another recommendation is to include students of all majors. Criminal Justice 
students may be predisposed to direct and indirect experiences involving the criminal 
justice system. It would be interesting to see if students in other majors view crime 
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differently. Students involved in other majors may be less aware of the true risk of 
victimization and may have increased levels of fear. As stated previously, the 
Introduction to Criminal Justice students surveyed for this study were given the 
instrument in week fourteen of the semester (there are only fifteen weeks per semester). 
There is a possibility that even without much experience or education in criminal justice, 
these students may have a better understanding of the true risks of victimization. It may 
also be beneficial to survey the students on fear of crime at the beginning of the semester 
and then again at the end of a semester to see if perceptions of crime and victimization 
have changed substantially.
 Next, we may yield different results if we were to separate the sources of news by 
type. For instance, allowing the participant to choose from local news and national news 
instead of condensing the two sources may further explain why participants are more 
emotionally responsive to one source of news over the other. Since hypothesis #4 was 
supported, future researchers may find that the impact of local news is more influential 
than the impact of national news. Another suggestion for future researchers is to allow 
the respondent to explain which precautions they take in terms of self protective 
measures. If those who have been victims or have known crime victims are more aware 
of the risks of victimization, then it may be beneficial to understand which precautions 
they take in order to avoid a second victimization. 
 Perhaps future research should go beyond surveying just college students. 
Distributing the survey to a wide array of individuals may yield different results about 
levels of fear and precautionary measures. College students lead a much different 
lifestyle than their older counterparts. Younger persons are much more likely to be the 
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victims of crime. College presents many scenarios where someone can be victimized. 
Parents and universities emphasize the dangers on and around campus. College students 
may therefore be more aware of potential threats. By increasing the amount of 
participants from various ages, geographical locations, and races/ethnicities with diverse 
majors, we may gain a better understanding of what causes different levels of fear 
regarding crime.  
Conclusion
 Three of the four hypotheses were not supported in this thesis. It was determined 
that people do not feel less safe in unfamiliar surrounding neighborhoods than in their 
own neighborhood. Though hypothesis one was not supported, it may be possible to find 
different results with a different and more diverse population. This research also found 
that those students who had higher exposure to news media were not more likely to be 
afraid of crime and did not increase precautionary measures in their daily life. Hypothesis 
four was supported; students who had been the victim of a crime or had known the victim 
of a crime were more aware of potential victimization. 
 It appears as though the media does not have a strong influence on increasing 
levels of fear among college students, yet being the victim of a crime or knowing the 
victim of a crime increases awareness of victimization. Personal experience is the 
greatest indicator of how we perceive the world. While the media is constantly present in 
our daily lives, it does not mean that it will change the impact of personal experiences. 
We are exposed to crime every time we turn on our television or when we open our 
internet browser. The mind-set that “it won’t happen to me” may be applicable to those 
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who have never been or never known the victim of a crime. However, for those that have 
been victimized, being fearless was lost the moment victimization hit home. Fear should 
not be something that consumes one’s life. Awareness, not fear, should be the driving 
force in how people perceive crime. Awareness is being perceptive of your surrounding 
and taking normal precautions.  It is the emotional, and sometimes irrational, response to 
a situation unfamiliar to us. While fear is a natural emotion and necessary for survival, it 
should not be binding. The cliché of, “be afraid… be very afraid” should not apply to the 
way one chooses to live life.
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Justice, 38, 34-41. 
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APPENDIX B- INSTRUMENT 
INFORMED CONSENT 
Dear student:
 We are conducting a study to determine fear of crime in college students. In this study, 
you will be asked to give details about your perceptions of fear of crime. Your participation 
should take about five minutes.
 There are no risks to you. 
 All information will be handled in a strictly anonymous manner, so that no one will be 
able to identify you when the results are recorded/reported.
 Your participation in this study is totally voluntary and you may withdraw at any time 
without negative consequences. Your professor will have no knowledge of your involvement or 
non-involvement. There is no pressure to participate. If you wish to withdraw at any time during 
the study, simply leave the survey blank when it is collected.
 By completing and returning this survey, you are consenting to the information you 
provide to be used in our research project. 
 Please feel free to contact Dr. Christopher M. Bellas if you have any questions about the 
study. Or, for other questions, contact the Director of Grants and Sponsored Programs at YSU. 
Media and Crime Survey 
1. Where do you receive most of your news about local, national, and/or international news? 
(Choose only one--the source from where you receive most of your news.) 
a) I prefer not to watch programs on local, national, and/or international news. 
b) Television
c) Newspaper
d) Internet 
e) Friends/ family/ co-workers  
f) Other, please explain ___________________________________ 
2. How much time do you spend each day watching, listening to, or reading about the news? 
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a) I do not spend any time watching/listening to/reading about the news. 
b) Less than one hour 
c) One to two hours 
d) Three to four hours 
e) Five hours or more 
3. Select the statement which most applies to you: 
a) News coverage about crime highly increases my awareness of becoming a victim of 
crime. 
b) News coverage about crime slightly increases my awareness of becoming a victim of 
crime. 
c) News coverage about crime does not influence my awareness of becoming a victim of 
crime. 
4. Select the statement which most applies to you: 
a) I take precautions in my daily life to avoid becoming the target of a crime. 
b) I do not take precautions in my daily life to avoid becoming the target of a crime. 
(Precautions meaning you carry mace, you avoid unlit areas at night, you avoid 
unpopulated areas, you avoid “unsafe” neighborhoods, etc…) 
5. On a scale of 1 being “very fearful” to 5 being “not fearful at all”, how fearful do you feel 
within a mile of your neighborhood? (Circle the appropriate number. Select only one.) 
   1 2 3 4 5 
6.  On a scale of 1 being “very fearful” to 5 being “not fearful at all”, how fearful do you feel in 
your surrounding neighborhoods? (Circle the appropriate number. Select only one.) 
   1 2 3 4 5 
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7. Have you ever been the victim of a crime?      
a) No, I have never been the victim of a crime that I am aware of.  
b) Yes, I have been the victim of a crime.  
c) I would prefer not to answer this question.
8. Has someone you personally know been the victim of a crime?      
a) No, I know no one who has been the victim of a crime.  
b) Yes, I have known people that have been the victim of a crime.  
c) I would prefer not to answer this question.
9. If you have answered YES to question #7 or #8, do you feel that you are more aware of the 
possibility of crime? 
 a) No, it has not changed my perception of crime at all.  
 b) Yes, I am more aware of the possibility of crime.  
 c) This question does not apply to me. 
10. What is your age?   __________ years old 
11. What is your gender? a) Female b) Male 
12. Which of the following best describes your race/ethnicity? (Choose only one.) 
a) Caucasian    
b) African American   
c) Hispanic  
d) American Indian  
e) Asian
f) Other, please specify: _____________________________________________  
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13. What is your current major in college?  ____________________________________ 
14. What is your class rank?  
 a) Freshman   b) Sophomore   c) Junior   d) Senior     f) Graduate student 
15. What is your total household income? (Choose the category to the best of your knowledge.) 
a) Less than $10,000  e) $70,000- $99,999  
 b) $10,000- $29,999  f) $100,000- $119,999 
c) $30,000- $49,999  g) $120,000- $149,999 
d) $50,000- $69,999  h) $150,000 or more  
16. What is crime like in your neighborhood? 
a) Crime in my neighborhood is lower than in my surrounding neighborhoods. 
b) Crime is the same in my neighborhood as in my surrounding neighborhoods. 
c) Crime is higher in my neighborhood than in my surrounding neighborhoods. 
d) I don’t know. 
17. What causes you to fear crime the most?  Please explain. 
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Thank you for your valuable time and responses. 
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APPENDIX C- VERBATIM RESPONSES TO INSTRUMENT QUESTION #17 
Causes of Fear; Responses on Returned Surveys 
1. Not knowing if someone will randomly choose me or anyone around me as a target. 
2. The fact that anyone and everyone is capable of crime, and you cannot trust anyone. 
3. If I hear about it in my town. 
4. Blank.
5. I don’t want to die no time soon. 
6. Wouldn’t want to get hurt. 
7. Statistical reports in news or current reported news that happened in my city 
(Youngstown).
8. My neighbors. 
9. None.
10. Blank.
11. Being murdered. 
12. Ignorance, financial status. 
13. Blank.
14. Crack heads. 
15. Fear to lose things that I earned or worked for like money. 
16. Stories- my parents are both Columbus police officers so I’ve heard a lot of bad things. 
17. Blank.
18. Blank.
19. Blank.
20. Blank.
21. Blank.
22. Being in the wrong place at the wrong time. 
23. Blank.
24. Blank.
25. When I see and hear about crime on the news locally and nationally. 
26. Crack heads, burglaries. 
27. Suspicious people: because you never know what they will do or what they are capable of 
doing.
28. The fear of being a victim again. I take all the precautions I can. 
29. When it involves my family. 
30. Blacks/YSU
31. Youngstown
32. All of the news coverage and how they only tell stories that involve crime. 
33. Minorities in my neighborhood. 
34. Blank.
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35. The way we hear about it in the media. 
36. All the media coverage and negative stories in the news about murders, rapes, etc. Also 
previous experience. 
37. Blank.
38. Blank.
39. Blank.
40. My surrounding neighborhoods. 
41. No fear. From the ghetto- I’m used to it. 
42. People act before thinking about the consequences. 
43. Blank.
44. N/A
45. N/A
46. All the talk about how bad Youngstown is. I have no problem in Salem at all! 
47. Blank.
48. Dying; because I don’t want to die early. 
49. Crime rate in the neighborhood I am currently in. 
50. Being the victim of a violent crime. 
51. I don’t. 
52. I have no fears. 
53. The street activity you see daily. 
54. N/A
55. Rape.
56. Blank.
57. Being hurt. 
58. Blank.
59. Blank.
60. Crime shows scare me. 
61. Blank.
62. When I know something happened in a place that I am frequently at. 
63. Nothing. I distance myself. 
64. I fear things like assault in my home (not as much now since I moved). I fear attacks on a 
walk. I fear this because it’s reality and the surrounding areas like Youngstown are 
amazingly dangerous. 
65. You don’t know what is going to happen. 
66. The knowledge of it being everywhere. 
67. Blank.
68. Blank.
69. The fact that it can happen to me and you don’t even know it’s happening. 
70. Blank.
71. Blank.
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72. Being in unknown areas. 
73. Blank.
74. Recent activities on campus- shooting, robbery in the parking deck. 
75. Nothing really because when crime happens so much around you, you’ll eventually get 
used to it. 
76. Being away from family. 
77. I’m not really afraid of crime because I refuse to live my life in fear of other people. 
78. Losing personal information. 
79. Blank.
80. Knowing there is always someone watching for the opportunity. 
81. When I am alone in public places. 
82. Friends who were victims or news stories. 
83. The fact that someone can be completely unpredictable in their actions. 
84. When I am in an area that I am unfamiliar with and when I’m walking to my car during 
night.
85. Ignorance-people don’t think about the things they do that bring harm to themselves and 
others.
86. Shootings.
87. If it happens to someone I know. 
88. I don’t really fear it because living in fear makes your life less full and fun. 
89. Not fearful of it. Good luck to them if they try to commit a crime on me or to me- it 
won’t happen. 
90. Just the thought of losing my personal possessions and the ones I care about to be hurt or 
become victims. 
91. Feeling like you are being followed and feel like someone might attack you. 
92. Nothing makes me fear crime. 
93. When it’s happening to someone I know. 
94. Blank.
95. Blank.
96. IDK- all! 
97. Blank.
98. Blank.
99. Threat of dying. 
100. Dying.
101. Loss of friend or family member. 
102. Blank.
103. African Americans. 
104. None.
105. Rape. My car being broken into. 
106. Television stories about local crime. 
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107. Cops arresting people with drugs. 
108. My neighborhood is bad and cops constantly circle the street across from me. 
109. Robberies, rapes. 
110. Weapons and the strength of the person committing the crime. 
111. Blank.
112. Don’t know. 
113. I don’t want to die yet. 
114. Blank.
115. Blank.
116. Blank.
117. Blank.
118. Petty crime. 
119. Blank.
120. Blank.
121. Blank.
122. Blank.
123. Blank.
124. Blank.
125. My uncle being killed in 2003. I wouldn’t want to put my family through that 
 again. 
126. The violent crime in Youngstown. 
127. That it can happen anywhere at any time. You never know when you or someone 
 you know may be a victim of crime so it leaves you feeling uneasy about being a 
 victim of crime. 
128. Blank.
129. Blank.
130. Blank.
131. Blank.
132. The crime that I see or hear about. 
133. Criminal incidents. 
134. Burglary.