PARENTAL SUBSTANCE ABUSE
ATTRIBUTES TO CONDUCT DISORDERS
AND JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
by
ANITA WAINWRIGHT
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment ofthe Requirements
for the Degree of
Master ofScience
in the
Criminal Justice
Department
YOUNGSTOWN STATE UNIVERSITY
December 2000
PARENTAL SUBSTANCE ABUSE
ATTRIBUTES TO CONDUCT DISORDERS
AND JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
by
ANITA WAINWRIGHT
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment ofthe Requirements
for the Degree of
Master ofScience
in the
Criminal Justice
Department
YOUNGSTOWN STATE UNIVERSITY
December 2000
PARENTAL SUBSTANCE ABUSE ATTRIBUTES
TO CONDUCT DISORDERS AND
JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
Anita Wainwright
I hereby release this thesis to the public. I understand this thesis will be housed at the
Circulation Desk ofthe University Library and will be available for public access.
I also authorize the University or other individuals to make copies ofthis thesis, as
needed, for scholarly research.
Approvals: !cl,"~
I/o
C. Allen Pierce, PH.D., Committee Member Date
PARENTAL SUBSTANCE ABUSE ATTRIBUTES
TO CONDUCT DISORDERS AND
JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
Anita Wainwright
I hereby release this thesis to the public. I understand this thesis will be housed at the
Circulation Desk ofthe University Library and will be available for public access.
I also authorize the University or other individuals to make copies ofthis thesis, as
needed, for scholarly research.
Approvals: !cl,"~
I/o
C. Allen Pierce, PH.D., Committee Member Date
ABSTRACT
An increase ofsubstance abuse and addiction is sweeping the nation. As a result
ofthis abuse / addiction, children are being abused and neglected. Children are entering
foster care at an alallning rate resulting in broken homes and families that were once
intact. According to the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA), the
number ofabused and neglected children has increased from 1.4 million to three million.
This research addressed the consequences to children who live in homes where their
parent(s) abuse drugs or alcohol. The study was qualitative and quantitative in nature.
Closed case files from Mahoning County Children Services in Ohio were reviewed and
analyzed. Information was discussed only in the aggregate form to protect the identity of
the child and his/her family. The hypothesis derived for this study, after extensive
literature review, was that parental substance abuse impacts children negatively in that it
contributes to conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency. This study also focuses on
whether or not abused and neglected children are angry, antisocial, physically aggressive
and possibly violent. Results from the study ofcase files, dealing with abused and
neglected children, revealed that children exhibited poor school attendance, destructive
behavior, and physical aggression iftheir parent(s) are substance abusers.
III
ABSTRACT
An increase ofsubstance abuse and addiction is sweeping the nation. As a result
ofthis abuse / addiction, children are being abused and neglected. Children are entering
foster care at an alallning rate resulting in broken homes and families that were once
intact. According to the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA), the
number ofabused and neglected children has increased from 1.4 million to three million.
This research addressed the consequences to children who live in homes where their
parent(s) abuse drugs or alcohol. The study was qualitative and quantitative in nature.
Closed case files from Mahoning County Children Services in Ohio were reviewed and
analyzed. Information was discussed only in the aggregate form to protect the identity of
the child and his/her family. The hypothesis derived for this study, after extensive
literature review, was that parental substance abuse impacts children negatively in that it
contributes to conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency. This study also focuses on
whether or not abused and neglected children are angry, antisocial, physically aggressive
and possibly violent. Results from the study ofcase files, dealing with abused and
neglected children, revealed that children exhibited poor school attendance, destructive
behavior, and physical aggression iftheir parent(s) are substance abusers.
III
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank God for allowing me to receive the gift offaith.
I would like to thank Dr. Tammy A. King for her assistance, guidance, and patience during
the process ofdrafting and completing this work. I would like to thank my two sisters, first
my late sister Virginia Lomax who inspired me to achieve my goals. My second sister, Barbara
Doward, whose opinion, I value encouraged me to continue my education. I would like to thank
my Pastor Wayman Thomas who unknowingly planted a seed in my heart during a sermon by
stating that you can achieve your goals by having faith in Jesus who will give you guidance. I
would like to thank my mother, Ruby Lomax who has been an inspiration in my life because of
her own wisdom, knowledge, and encouragement. Finally, I want to thank my husband Louis, for
his tremendous support, and encouragement, and my daughter Khailia for having understanding
and patience throughout this endeavor.
IV
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank God for allowing me to receive the gift offaith.
I would like to thank Dr. Tammy A. King for her assistance, guidance, and patience during
the process ofdrafting and completing this work. I would like to thank my two sisters, first
my late sister Virginia Lomax who inspired me to achieve my goals. My second sister, Barbara
Doward, whose opinion, I value encouraged me to continue my education. I would like to thank
my Pastor Wayman Thomas who unknowingly planted a seed in my heart during a sermon by
stating that you can achieve your goals by having faith in Jesus who will give you guidance. I
would like to thank my mother, Ruby Lomax who has been an inspiration in my life because of
her own wisdom, knowledge, and encouragement. Finally, I want to thank my husband Louis, for
his tremendous support, and encouragement, and my daughter Khailia for having understanding
and patience throughout this endeavor.
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION.
Statement ofProblem
Purpose ofthe study
Summary .
III
IV
VII
VIII
2
3
. 3
4
30
30
33
34
Description ofthe Parents Involved in the Study
Abuse Data . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Description ofthe Children Involved in the Study
ANALYSIS AND FINDING . . . . . . .
CHAPTER
II. LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
CHAPTER
III. METHODOLOGY... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
CHAPTER
IV.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION.
Statement ofProblem
Purpose ofthe study
Summary .
III
IV
VII
VIII
2
3
. 3
4
30
30
33
34
Description ofthe Parents Involved in the Study
Abuse Data . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Description ofthe Children Involved in the Study
ANALYSIS AND FINDING . . . . . . .
CHAPTER
II. LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
CHAPTER
III. METHODOLOGY... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
CHAPTER
IV.
v
CHAPTER
v.
REFERENCES .
APPENDIX-A
APPENDIX-B
APPENDIX-C
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . 38
39
43
46
48
vi
CHAPTER
v.
REFERENCES .
APPENDIX-A
APPENDIX-B
APPENDIX-C
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . 38
39
43
46
48
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Parent's Martial Status.
Table 2. Parent's Race.
Table 3. Parent's Location
VB
Page
32
32
32
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Parent's Martial Status.
Table 2. Parent's Race.
Table 3. Parent's Location
VB
Page
32
32
32
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Significance in Parental Substance Abuse
Figure 2. Significance in Physical Abuse, Sexual Abuse,
And Physical Abuse ofChildren Who's
Parent's Are Substance Abuser
Figure 3. Significance in Behavior Problems, Good
Attendance, And Poor Attendance OfChildren
Who's Parent's Are Substance Abuser
Vlll
Page
31
33
34
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Significance in Parental Substance Abuse
Figure 2. Significance in Physical Abuse, Sexual Abuse,
And Physical Abuse ofChildren Who's
Parent's Are Substance Abuser
Figure 3. Significance in Behavior Problems, Good
Attendance, And Poor Attendance OfChildren
Who's Parent's Are Substance Abuser
Vlll
Page
31
33
34
PARENTAL SUBSTANCE ABUSE ATTRIBUTES TO
CONDUCT DISORDERS AND JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This study focuses on parental substance abuse and how such abuse could contribute
to conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency in their offspring. It is important to identify
factors that can influence a child's delinquent acts in order to intervene and target children
at risk for juvenile delinquency. More child abuse and neglect cases are entering the
Child Protective Services (CPS) nationally at an alarming rate due to parental substance
abuse and child maltreatment. According to the General Accounting Office (1998) "our
nations foster care population has nearly doubled since the mid-1980s, leading to
dramatic increases in federal foster care expenditures" (1). Today about half a million
children are in foster care, possibly due to the onset of the crack-cocaine in the mid-
1980's. Howard (2000) states in the last 10 years the reported cases of abused and
neglected children more than doubled, from 1.4 million in 1986 to more than 3 million in
1997; substance abuse was involved in more than 70 percent ofthe cases. He discusses
how a current survey of state child welfare administrators revealed that parental
substance abuse was a factor in at least 50 percent ofsubstantiated cases ofchild abuse
and neglect. He suggests that children whose parents abuse substances are almost three
times more likely to be abused and four times more likely to be neglected than other
children. In reported cases, 60 percent of child maltreatment is neglect, followed by
physical abuse in 25 percent of the cases. Sexual abuse is 25 percent and emotional
maltreatment is 5 percent. Child maltreatment can fall into more than one type ofabuse
category. He concludes by saying researchers, counselors, and program administrators
agree that the rise in substance abuse disorders is a factor in child abuse and neglect cases
which has complicated efforts by child welfare to protect children and rehabilitate
PARENTAL SUBSTANCE ABUSE ATTRIBUTES TO
CONDUCT DISORDERS AND JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This study focuses on parental substance abuse and how such abuse could contribute
to conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency in their offspring. It is important to identify
factors that can influence a child's delinquent acts in order to intervene and target children
at risk for juvenile delinquency. More child abuse and neglect cases are entering the
Child Protective Services (CPS) nationally at an alarming rate due to parental substance
abuse and child maltreatment. According to the General Accounting Office (1998) "our
nations foster care population has nearly doubled since the mid-1980s, leading to
dramatic increases in federal foster care expenditures" (1). Today about half a million
children are in foster care, possibly due to the onset of the crack-cocaine in the mid-
1980's. Howard (2000) states in the last 10 years the reported cases of abused and
neglected children more than doubled, from 1.4 million in 1986 to more than 3 million in
1997; substance abuse was involved in more than 70 percent ofthe cases. He discusses
how a current survey of state child welfare administrators revealed that parental
substance abuse was a factor in at least 50 percent ofsubstantiated cases ofchild abuse
and neglect. He suggests that children whose parents abuse substances are almost three
times more likely to be abused and four times more likely to be neglected than other
children. In reported cases, 60 percent of child maltreatment is neglect, followed by
physical abuse in 25 percent of the cases. Sexual abuse is 25 percent and emotional
maltreatment is 5 percent. Child maltreatment can fall into more than one type ofabuse
category. He concludes by saying researchers, counselors, and program administrators
agree that the rise in substance abuse disorders is a factor in child abuse and neglect cases
which has complicated efforts by child welfare to protect children and rehabilitate
families (Howard, 2000, 1-3).
As a result of family and societal problems, we are seemg more incidents of
shooting in schools. Juvenile violence is no longer an inner city problem, it is happening
all over the country. For example, the Columbine shootings shocked the nation. Who
would have thought such a thing could happen in an upscale neighborhood. According to
Moses (1999), "firearm homicide is the second leading cause of death for all 15 to 19
year olds" (21). Although juvenile delinquency and juvenile violence affects all segments
of American society, it has a devastating effect on the African-American community.
Juvenile violence is still going on in the inner city neighborhoods targeting African 
American males ages 15 to 24. These males are seven times more likely to be murdered
than Caucasians. These young men are victims ofviolence in neighborhoods where gang
and drug related crime is common. Although there is a beliefthat many factors contribute
to conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency, parental substance abuse impacts children
negatively, in that it, attributes to these problems (Moses, 1999,21-24).
Problem Statement:
Juvenile delinquency in the United States is a major social problem. Consequences of
juvenile delinquency are enormous such as youth violence, and its consumption of
resources. Since parents are supposed to be the primary caregivers and first teachers of
our youth, we need to evaluate the impact ofthe home environment on this problem.
Purpose ofthe study:
The purpose of the study is to identify whether or not parental substance abuse is
associated with conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency. The importance ofthis study
is that it will assist the public in understanding the nature of the problem and its
consequences to the youth and the nation. Upon completion ofthe study it will enhance
the existing literature in juvenile delinquency.
2
families (Howard, 2000, 1-3).
As a result of family and societal problems, we are seemg more incidents of
shooting in schools. Juvenile violence is no longer an inner city problem, it is happening
all over the country. For example, the Columbine shootings shocked the nation. Who
would have thought such a thing could happen in an upscale neighborhood. According to
Moses (1999), "firearm homicide is the second leading cause of death for all 15 to 19
year olds" (21). Although juvenile delinquency and juvenile violence affects all segments
of American society, it has a devastating effect on the African-American community.
Juvenile violence is still going on in the inner city neighborhoods targeting African 
American males ages 15 to 24. These males are seven times more likely to be murdered
than Caucasians. These young men are victims ofviolence in neighborhoods where gang
and drug related crime is common. Although there is a beliefthat many factors contribute
to conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency, parental substance abuse impacts children
negatively, in that it, attributes to these problems (Moses, 1999,21-24).
Problem Statement:
Juvenile delinquency in the United States is a major social problem. Consequences of
juvenile delinquency are enormous such as youth violence, and its consumption of
resources. Since parents are supposed to be the primary caregivers and first teachers of
our youth, we need to evaluate the impact ofthe home environment on this problem.
Purpose ofthe study:
The purpose of the study is to identify whether or not parental substance abuse is
associated with conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency. The importance ofthis study
is that it will assist the public in understanding the nature of the problem and its
consequences to the youth and the nation. Upon completion ofthe study it will enhance
the existing literature in juvenile delinquency.
2
Summary:
In this chapter, the problem facing the nation concerning juvenile delinquency was
addressed. The purpose for this study was present. In Chapter II, a literature review
concerning the relationship between parental substance abuse and child misconduct will
be presented. In Chapter III and IV how data was collected and analyzed will be
discussed. In the final Chapter V, and overview offmding and a discussion will occur.
3
Summary:
In this chapter, the problem facing the nation concerning juvenile delinquency was
addressed. The purpose for this study was present. In Chapter II, a literature review
concerning the relationship between parental substance abuse and child misconduct will
be presented. In Chapter III and IV how data was collected and analyzed will be
discussed. In the final Chapter V, and overview offmding and a discussion will occur.
3
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
In order to better understand the relationship between parental substance abuse and
juvenile delinquency, a review ofthe literature is presented. One major study by Kandel
(1990) discussed the potential impact ofdrug use and other parental factors on children's
development in a longitudinal study. Kandel (1990) discovers by examining the
literature, two major functions that a parent should exhibit to help develop a child's
psychosocial functioning. One is the emphasis on affection and nurturance, and the other
is the monitoring and supervision ofa child's activities. He discusses how the closeness
dimension emphasizes affection, nurturance, and acceptance ofthe child by the parent.
Monitoring emphasizes parental involvement in the child's life, supervision ofthe child's
activities, and firmness in setting controls and limits. Parental substance abuse seems to
diminish these functions causing a child to exhibit conduct disorders, behavior disorders,
and juvenile delinquency. Kandel (1990) indicated that higher drug involvement is
associated with a decrease in obedient children and an increase in children assessed as
aggressive, withdrawn, detached, and not well adjusted. The male children of parental
drug users seem to engage in both fighting and drug use. Kandel (1990) discussed how
mothers who are more heavily involved in drugs report more control problems with their
children. Vaillant and Milofsky (1982) suggest substance abusers and alcoholics share a
number of similarities in parenting styles. These families are characterized by poor
parenting skills, unreasonably high expectations for their children, lack of supervision,
extreme disciplinary techniques, social isolation, lack of cohesion, psychological
problems, family stress, conflict, and antisocial behavior.
Kandel (1990) suggested that results ofthe study indicated poorer parenting increases
with increasing drug involvement. Lifetime or increasing current drug involvement and
heavy drinking in the last year are related to less supervision ofthe child, more punitive
4
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
In order to better understand the relationship between parental substance abuse and
juvenile delinquency, a review ofthe literature is presented. One major study by Kandel
(1990) discussed the potential impact ofdrug use and other parental factors on children's
development in a longitudinal study. Kandel (1990) discovers by examining the
literature, two major functions that a parent should exhibit to help develop a child's
psychosocial functioning. One is the emphasis on affection and nurturance, and the other
is the monitoring and supervision ofa child's activities. He discusses how the closeness
dimension emphasizes affection, nurturance, and acceptance ofthe child by the parent.
Monitoring emphasizes parental involvement in the child's life, supervision ofthe child's
activities, and firmness in setting controls and limits. Parental substance abuse seems to
diminish these functions causing a child to exhibit conduct disorders, behavior disorders,
and juvenile delinquency. Kandel (1990) indicated that higher drug involvement is
associated with a decrease in obedient children and an increase in children assessed as
aggressive, withdrawn, detached, and not well adjusted. The male children of parental
drug users seem to engage in both fighting and drug use. Kandel (1990) discussed how
mothers who are more heavily involved in drugs report more control problems with their
children. Vaillant and Milofsky (1982) suggest substance abusers and alcoholics share a
number of similarities in parenting styles. These families are characterized by poor
parenting skills, unreasonably high expectations for their children, lack of supervision,
extreme disciplinary techniques, social isolation, lack of cohesion, psychological
problems, family stress, conflict, and antisocial behavior.
Kandel (1990) suggested that results ofthe study indicated poorer parenting increases
with increasing drug involvement. Lifetime or increasing current drug involvement and
heavy drinking in the last year are related to less supervision ofthe child, more punitive
4
forms ofdiscipline, less closeness, less discussion, and less positive involvement with the
child. The results of the study also indicated a strong pattern emerges regarding the
association between the children's behaviors and maternal drug involvement. Mothers
who are more heavily in drugs report more control problems.
Family disorganization, lack of parental monitoring, and discipline are crucial in
promoting antisocial behavior in children. Children need guidance and structure in their
lives; without it, behavior problems can occur. Certain negative parenting styles stimulate
deviant behaviors in children, and when they grow up, they reproduce these same
negative parenting styles ( Kandel, 1990, p.190-192).
Gold (1993) discussed, a study conducted for the National Institute on Drug Abuse
by Dr. Michael Iadarola :
The short-term stimulus of a single dose of cocaine may cause physiological
affects in the brain long after the cocaine has cleared the system. The
proliferation of c-fos proteins may help to explain how cocaine can trigger
charges in the neuron's genetic expression, the redefinition of the chemical
environment as normal, the number of receptors, and the powerful and long lasting
cravings and memory like effects reported by cocaine users (49).
These parents will most likely be thinking about cocaine and how to get more because of
the ongoing craving. Seeking the drug can make it easy for children to be at risk ofbeing
neglected and abused. The parent's focus is primarily on getting and using drugs which
leaves very little time for addressing a child's physical, emotional, and basic needs.
Gold (1993) indicated that in 1991 the National Household Survey estimated that 21.9
million Americans had used cocaine at least once and that 1.9 million were current users.
Out ofthe almost 22 million, only a small fraction have entered into treatment programs.
Although 20 million chose not to continue their cocaine use, the 1.9 million is still a
substantial number ofpeople. The physician's role is very important in detecting drug use
in order to encourage drug treatment. Drug treatment can be expensive, but a recent study
found that for every dollar spent, $11.54 was saved in social costs (the cost to society
5
forms ofdiscipline, less closeness, less discussion, and less positive involvement with the
child. The results of the study also indicated a strong pattern emerges regarding the
association between the children's behaviors and maternal drug involvement. Mothers
who are more heavily in drugs report more control problems.
Family disorganization, lack of parental monitoring, and discipline are crucial in
promoting antisocial behavior in children. Children need guidance and structure in their
lives; without it, behavior problems can occur. Certain negative parenting styles stimulate
deviant behaviors in children, and when they grow up, they reproduce these same
negative parenting styles ( Kandel, 1990, p.190-192).
Gold (1993) discussed, a study conducted for the National Institute on Drug Abuse
by Dr. Michael Iadarola :
The short-term stimulus of a single dose of cocaine may cause physiological
affects in the brain long after the cocaine has cleared the system. The
proliferation of c-fos proteins may help to explain how cocaine can trigger
charges in the neuron's genetic expression, the redefinition of the chemical
environment as normal, the number of receptors, and the powerful and long lasting
cravings and memory like effects reported by cocaine users (49).
These parents will most likely be thinking about cocaine and how to get more because of
the ongoing craving. Seeking the drug can make it easy for children to be at risk ofbeing
neglected and abused. The parent's focus is primarily on getting and using drugs which
leaves very little time for addressing a child's physical, emotional, and basic needs.
Gold (1993) indicated that in 1991 the National Household Survey estimated that 21.9
million Americans had used cocaine at least once and that 1.9 million were current users.
Out ofthe almost 22 million, only a small fraction have entered into treatment programs.
Although 20 million chose not to continue their cocaine use, the 1.9 million is still a
substantial number ofpeople. The physician's role is very important in detecting drug use
in order to encourage drug treatment. Drug treatment can be expensive, but a recent study
found that for every dollar spent, $11.54 was saved in social costs (the cost to society
5
from arrests, prosecution, theft, medical care, and impaired job performance) (Gold,
1993, p.115-117).
Gold (1993) suggests that drug treatment programs should focus on the chemical
dependency model, not as a psychiatric model. Direct the program with a
multidisciplinary approach to drug treatment including behavioral, cognitive, educational,
and self-control techniques aimed at the reduction ofdrug cravings and the potential for
relapse. Although there are several treatment programs for parental substance abusers,
outpatient treatment is the preferred one. This way, the patient can remain with their
children while receiving treatment, and the entire family can become involved in the
treatment process. The child who is exhibiting conduct disorders and juvenile
delinquency can be referred for counseling services. He discussed that how left untreated,
children in these families often grow up to have poor self images and low self esteem,
and they fmd it hard to develop satisfactory relationships with others. They grow up to
mistrust all people but feel more comfortable with intolerable behavior. Successful
treatment programs must work with all the family members ( Gold, 1993, 152). These
children have a problem with social skills because they never developed a bonding
relationship with their parents or anyone else.
When children's physical and emotional needs are not met, due to parental substance
abuse, and if reported to child protective services, it is possible for children to be
removed from the home due to neglect. According to the United States General
Accounting Office (GAO) (1998), "the escalating use ofhard drugs has contributed to the
growth in the foster care population" (1). GAO (1998) states because ofthe nature ofthe
addiction, obtaining and using drugs or alcohol is the abusers first priority. The safety and
well-being of their children is secondary. Research suggests that substance-abusing
parents ofchildren in foster care do not always form healthy emotional attachments with
their children and may have limited parenting skills. These parents may abandon their
children at birth or sometime later in their lives, be periodically absent from home, or
6
from arrests, prosecution, theft, medical care, and impaired job performance) (Gold,
1993, p.115-117).
Gold (1993) suggests that drug treatment programs should focus on the chemical
dependency model, not as a psychiatric model. Direct the program with a
multidisciplinary approach to drug treatment including behavioral, cognitive, educational,
and self-control techniques aimed at the reduction ofdrug cravings and the potential for
relapse. Although there are several treatment programs for parental substance abusers,
outpatient treatment is the preferred one. This way, the patient can remain with their
children while receiving treatment, and the entire family can become involved in the
treatment process. The child who is exhibiting conduct disorders and juvenile
delinquency can be referred for counseling services. He discussed that how left untreated,
children in these families often grow up to have poor self images and low self esteem,
and they fmd it hard to develop satisfactory relationships with others. They grow up to
mistrust all people but feel more comfortable with intolerable behavior. Successful
treatment programs must work with all the family members ( Gold, 1993, 152). These
children have a problem with social skills because they never developed a bonding
relationship with their parents or anyone else.
When children's physical and emotional needs are not met, due to parental substance
abuse, and if reported to child protective services, it is possible for children to be
removed from the home due to neglect. According to the United States General
Accounting Office (GAO) (1998), "the escalating use ofhard drugs has contributed to the
growth in the foster care population" (1). GAO (1998) states because ofthe nature ofthe
addiction, obtaining and using drugs or alcohol is the abusers first priority. The safety and
well-being of their children is secondary. Research suggests that substance-abusing
parents ofchildren in foster care do not always form healthy emotional attachments with
their children and may have limited parenting skills. These parents may abandon their
children at birth or sometime later in their lives, be periodically absent from home, or
6
leave their children in unsafe environments. Parental substance abusers subject their
children to neglect and crime. Children whose parents abuse illicit drugs sometimes
witness or are the victims of violence. Increasing the foster care population is not a
solution to parental substance abuse. These children, even in extreme cases of child
abuse, want to be reunified with their parents. Putting the children in foster care, away
from their parents, does not really help the children. The child could have exhibited
conduct disorders and delinquent acts before he/she was actually removed. Removal may
cause the child to be angry because of separation and they may exhibit even more
delinquent acts. One issue of concern to medical and child welfare experts is the
emotional impact on children in foster care. Babies born addicted to drugs may not be
able to form positive relationships in later life because they could not bond due to an
extended hospital stay.
Babies placed in foster care bond with their foster mothers, however ifmoved from
home to home, might not be able to form emotional bonds with anyone. Siblings who
have bonded and then are separated can become angry, hostile, and emotionally scared
(Subcommittee on Human Services, Committee on Ways and Means, U.S. House of
Representatives, 1990, 53). Siblings may have a problem bonding when fmally placed
together because ofseparation due to being placed in different foster homes. Intervention
is essential to the at-risk child but it should also include programs that will help the
family remain together. Foster care should be the second choice, the first choice should
be treatment programs that will address the family's needs. The parents and children
should continue to live together while receiving treatment and counseling. Both the
parent and the child need programs that will work with the family and keep the family
together (Subcommittee on Human Services, Committee on Ways and Means, U.S.
House ofRepresentatives, 1990, 53).
GAO (1998) explained how researchers are just beginning to demonstrate empirically
what child protective services workers have been observing for almost two decades. Most
7
leave their children in unsafe environments. Parental substance abusers subject their
children to neglect and crime. Children whose parents abuse illicit drugs sometimes
witness or are the victims of violence. Increasing the foster care population is not a
solution to parental substance abuse. These children, even in extreme cases of child
abuse, want to be reunified with their parents. Putting the children in foster care, away
from their parents, does not really help the children. The child could have exhibited
conduct disorders and delinquent acts before he/she was actually removed. Removal may
cause the child to be angry because of separation and they may exhibit even more
delinquent acts. One issue of concern to medical and child welfare experts is the
emotional impact on children in foster care. Babies born addicted to drugs may not be
able to form positive relationships in later life because they could not bond due to an
extended hospital stay.
Babies placed in foster care bond with their foster mothers, however ifmoved from
home to home, might not be able to form emotional bonds with anyone. Siblings who
have bonded and then are separated can become angry, hostile, and emotionally scared
(Subcommittee on Human Services, Committee on Ways and Means, U.S. House of
Representatives, 1990, 53). Siblings may have a problem bonding when fmally placed
together because ofseparation due to being placed in different foster homes. Intervention
is essential to the at-risk child but it should also include programs that will help the
family remain together. Foster care should be the second choice, the first choice should
be treatment programs that will address the family's needs. The parents and children
should continue to live together while receiving treatment and counseling. Both the
parent and the child need programs that will work with the family and keep the family
together (Subcommittee on Human Services, Committee on Ways and Means, U.S.
House ofRepresentatives, 1990, 53).
GAO (1998) explained how researchers are just beginning to demonstrate empirically
what child protective services workers have been observing for almost two decades. Most
7
families who come to the attention ofthe child welfare system are involved with drugs or
alcohol or both. Many cases ofchild abuse and neglect have in fact increased since the
mid 1980's when crack-cocaine was becoming widely available.
Dore (1998) suggests that substance abuse contributes to maladaptive parenting. He
discusses how parental substance abusers exhibit negative parenting skills and children
develop behavior problems, anxiety disorders, and affective disorders. A parent's own
early history ofabuse and neglect as an adolescent and in adulthood can contribute to
maladaptive parenting. An adult who was subjected to severe maltreatment at a young
age can manifest symptoms of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Borderline
Personality Disorder (BPD). Depression in mothers may be linked to child neglect
because ofwithdrawal, neglect ofcare giving tasks, and to child abuse due to irritability
and aggression that are often symptomatic of clinical levels of depression. Studies of
depressed mothers interactions with their young children were conducted. The results
revealed negative, critical, hostile, and rejection when compared to non-depressed
mothers. With their infants, depressed mothers showed more negative effect, were less
responsive, and provided less stimulation in face to face interactions. The concern was
that the maternal behaviors that help to insure secure early attachment in infants, were not
present in depressed mothers. The infant did not receive a secure attachment that will be
carried into toddlerhood and beyond (Dore, 1998, 1-10).
Studies have shown that infants of depressed mothers begin to mirror the mother's
depressed effect as early as the first few months oflife (Field, 1992). Dore (1998) states
that in these fIrst few months the child is able to pick up on the mothers sensitivity and
responsiveness to establish a pattern ofattachment that may predict the child's later social
relationships with peers and others. A mother who is unable to exhibit this attachment,
because she is using drugs, may establish a negative pattern ofattachment that will affect
the child's functioning over time. Such children are more likely to develop behavior
problems, anxiety disorders, and affective disorders than children of non-depressed
8
families who come to the attention ofthe child welfare system are involved with drugs or
alcohol or both. Many cases ofchild abuse and neglect have in fact increased since the
mid 1980's when crack-cocaine was becoming widely available.
Dore (1998) suggests that substance abuse contributes to maladaptive parenting. He
discusses how parental substance abusers exhibit negative parenting skills and children
develop behavior problems, anxiety disorders, and affective disorders. A parent's own
early history ofabuse and neglect as an adolescent and in adulthood can contribute to
maladaptive parenting. An adult who was subjected to severe maltreatment at a young
age can manifest symptoms of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Borderline
Personality Disorder (BPD). Depression in mothers may be linked to child neglect
because ofwithdrawal, neglect ofcare giving tasks, and to child abuse due to irritability
and aggression that are often symptomatic of clinical levels of depression. Studies of
depressed mothers interactions with their young children were conducted. The results
revealed negative, critical, hostile, and rejection when compared to non-depressed
mothers. With their infants, depressed mothers showed more negative effect, were less
responsive, and provided less stimulation in face to face interactions. The concern was
that the maternal behaviors that help to insure secure early attachment in infants, were not
present in depressed mothers. The infant did not receive a secure attachment that will be
carried into toddlerhood and beyond (Dore, 1998, 1-10).
Studies have shown that infants of depressed mothers begin to mirror the mother's
depressed effect as early as the first few months oflife (Field, 1992). Dore (1998) states
that in these fIrst few months the child is able to pick up on the mothers sensitivity and
responsiveness to establish a pattern ofattachment that may predict the child's later social
relationships with peers and others. A mother who is unable to exhibit this attachment,
because she is using drugs, may establish a negative pattern ofattachment that will affect
the child's functioning over time. Such children are more likely to develop behavior
problems, anxiety disorders, and affective disorders than children of non-depressed
8
parents or non-drug using mothers (Dore, 1998, p. 4-10).
Dore (1998) indicates that there is growing research literature on the association
between physical and/or sexual abuse in childhood and substance abuse, often beginning
in early adolescence. This relationship has been found in both clinic and community
samples. One such study noted the frequency ofsymptoms ofPTSD in individuals who
were sexually traumatized in childhood, and that substance abuse represents an effort to
manage the symptoms ofthis disorder. According to Dore (1998), "symptoms ofPTSD
include feelings of intense anxiety, hyperarousal, avoidant behaviors, emotional
numbing, and flashbacks to traumatic events" (1). Women who reported a childhood
experience ofsexual abuse had twice as many PTSD symptoms as women who reported
no such experience. Sexual abuse victims had double the number of alcohol abuse
symptoms as women who had no sexual abuse. Those abuse victims who reported
experiencing PTSD symptoms had twice as many alcohol abuse symptoms as abuse
victims who had no symptoms ofPTSD. From this it can be concluded that PTSD is the
connecting pathway between early sexual abuse and later chemical dependence (Dore
1998).
Dore (1998) also indicated that recent studies have shown links between early life
trauma such as sexual abuse, physical abuse, or witnessing domestic violence to the
development of symptoms of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD). BPD is often
diagnosed in women and has been linked theoretically and empirically with perpetration
ofchild maltreatment. According to Dore (1998), "symptoms include:
(a) a pattern ofintense but unstable interpersonal relationships which include alternately
idealizing and devaluing others
(b) impulsiveness in at least two potentially self-destructive areas, including use ofmind
and mood altering chemicals.
(c) instability ofaffect with marked shifts in mood
(d) inappropriate, intense anger
9
parents or non-drug using mothers (Dore, 1998, p. 4-10).
Dore (1998) indicates that there is growing research literature on the association
between physical and/or sexual abuse in childhood and substance abuse, often beginning
in early adolescence. This relationship has been found in both clinic and community
samples. One such study noted the frequency ofsymptoms ofPTSD in individuals who
were sexually traumatized in childhood, and that substance abuse represents an effort to
manage the symptoms ofthis disorder. According to Dore (1998), "symptoms ofPTSD
include feelings of intense anxiety, hyperarousal, avoidant behaviors, emotional
numbing, and flashbacks to traumatic events" (1). Women who reported a childhood
experience ofsexual abuse had twice as many PTSD symptoms as women who reported
no such experience. Sexual abuse victims had double the number of alcohol abuse
symptoms as women who had no sexual abuse. Those abuse victims who reported
experiencing PTSD symptoms had twice as many alcohol abuse symptoms as abuse
victims who had no symptoms ofPTSD. From this it can be concluded that PTSD is the
connecting pathway between early sexual abuse and later chemical dependence (Dore
1998).
Dore (1998) also indicated that recent studies have shown links between early life
trauma such as sexual abuse, physical abuse, or witnessing domestic violence to the
development of symptoms of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD). BPD is often
diagnosed in women and has been linked theoretically and empirically with perpetration
ofchild maltreatment. According to Dore (1998), "symptoms include:
(a) a pattern ofintense but unstable interpersonal relationships which include alternately
idealizing and devaluing others
(b) impulsiveness in at least two potentially self-destructive areas, including use ofmind
and mood altering chemicals.
(c) instability ofaffect with marked shifts in mood
(d) inappropriate, intense anger
9
(e) recurring suicidal threats, gestures, or behaviors, including self-mutilation
(f) identity confusion or disturbance
(g) chronic feelings ofemptiness or boredom
(h) preoccupation with real or imagined abandonment" (12).
Abusive parents have difficulty controlling their anger and they often exhibit
pervasive hostility and aggressiveness in interpersonal relationships. Dore (1998)
suggests they can exhibit social and emotional isolation of maltreating parents,
paralleling the difficulties persons with BPD have in sustaining meaningful interpersonal
relationships. Adults who were abused as children are more likely to be aggressive and
violent toward others and to engage in antisocial behavior. Abusive parents, particularly
in males who have a high correlation among abuse and neglect in early childhood, can
manifest sYmptoms ofantisocial personality disorder and aggression in adulthood. (Dore,
1998, 11).
There is a direct effect of mood and mind altering substances on a parent's physical
well being thus resulting in emotion and behavior that is likely altered in ways that are
detrimental to parenting and to the positive development ofchildren. Parental substance
abusers with PTSD or BPD sYmptoms, who were abused as a child, are more likely to
maltreat their own children. These children can grow up to repeat the same behaviors.
Children who grow up in families who abuse drugs exhibit psychosocial difficulties,
including becoming substance abusers themselves (Dore, 1998, 11-19).
The u.s. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) (1998), believes it is
appropriate to examine the relationship between child abuse, neglect, and substance
abuse because these problems are interrelated and affect many American families.
According to HHS (1998) " the term child abuse and neglect meaning at a minimum, any
recent act or failure to act on the part of the caretaker, which results in death, serious
physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, or an act offailure or failure to
act which presents harm (20). The purpose ofthe definition is to provide the reader with
10
(e) recurring suicidal threats, gestures, or behaviors, including self-mutilation
(f) identity confusion or disturbance
(g) chronic feelings ofemptiness or boredom
(h) preoccupation with real or imagined abandonment" (12).
Abusive parents have difficulty controlling their anger and they often exhibit
pervasive hostility and aggressiveness in interpersonal relationships. Dore (1998)
suggests they can exhibit social and emotional isolation of maltreating parents,
paralleling the difficulties persons with BPD have in sustaining meaningful interpersonal
relationships. Adults who were abused as children are more likely to be aggressive and
violent toward others and to engage in antisocial behavior. Abusive parents, particularly
in males who have a high correlation among abuse and neglect in early childhood, can
manifest sYmptoms ofantisocial personality disorder and aggression in adulthood. (Dore,
1998, 11).
There is a direct effect of mood and mind altering substances on a parent's physical
well being thus resulting in emotion and behavior that is likely altered in ways that are
detrimental to parenting and to the positive development ofchildren. Parental substance
abusers with PTSD or BPD sYmptoms, who were abused as a child, are more likely to
maltreat their own children. These children can grow up to repeat the same behaviors.
Children who grow up in families who abuse drugs exhibit psychosocial difficulties,
including becoming substance abusers themselves (Dore, 1998, 11-19).
The u.s. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) (1998), believes it is
appropriate to examine the relationship between child abuse, neglect, and substance
abuse because these problems are interrelated and affect many American families.
According to HHS (1998) " the term child abuse and neglect meaning at a minimum, any
recent act or failure to act on the part of the caretaker, which results in death, serious
physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, or an act offailure or failure to
act which presents harm (20). The purpose ofthe definition is to provide the reader with
10
an understanding ofhow it can effect children. This field lacks consistent defmitions and
there are many risk factors that cause child abuse and neglect. HHS (1998) states beyond
the immediate physical injuries children may suffer, child abuse and neglect can have a
long term effect. The effects ofchronic neglect are especially significant for later social
and emotional functioning. One of the more common problems associated with child
abuse and neglect is problematic school performance with neglected children most
adversely affected. Neglect during early childhood has negative consequences for later
social relationships, problem solving, and the ability to cope with new or stressful
situations. Some abused or neglected children develop aggressive behavior patterns, are
at risk of delinquency, violence, and other self-destructive behavior. At-risk for post 
traumatic stress disorder, major depression disorder, and other diagnostic conditions
(HHS, 1998, 19-26). In the most general sense, child neglect is characterized by failure to
provide for the child's basic needs, including: food, clothing, shelter, supervision and low
medical care. Child neglect can manifest from many causative or concurrent conditions,
however neglect is especially predominant in child maltreatment reports in which the
parent has substance abuse problems (HHS, 1998).
HHS (1998) reveals data from the 1986 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse
(NHSDA) and estimated 8.3 million children live in households in which at least one
parent is either alcoholic or in need of substance abuse treatment. Over 2.1 million of
these children live in families in which the predominant problem is illicit drugs.
Approximately 3.8 million live in families in which the primary problem is alcohol, and
2.4 million ofthese children live with parents who abuse both alcohol and illicit drugs in
combination. In 1996, child protective services (CPS) agencies received more than 3
million children. Substance abuse is more likely to be a factor in reports regarding
younger children, particularly infants, than older children. Substance abuse impairs
parental functioning and has negative impacts on children by putting the child at risk to
develop aggressive behaviors, delinquency, violence, and other selfdestructive behaviors
11
an understanding ofhow it can effect children. This field lacks consistent defmitions and
there are many risk factors that cause child abuse and neglect. HHS (1998) states beyond
the immediate physical injuries children may suffer, child abuse and neglect can have a
long term effect. The effects ofchronic neglect are especially significant for later social
and emotional functioning. One of the more common problems associated with child
abuse and neglect is problematic school performance with neglected children most
adversely affected. Neglect during early childhood has negative consequences for later
social relationships, problem solving, and the ability to cope with new or stressful
situations. Some abused or neglected children develop aggressive behavior patterns, are
at risk of delinquency, violence, and other self-destructive behavior. At-risk for post 
traumatic stress disorder, major depression disorder, and other diagnostic conditions
(HHS, 1998, 19-26). In the most general sense, child neglect is characterized by failure to
provide for the child's basic needs, including: food, clothing, shelter, supervision and low
medical care. Child neglect can manifest from many causative or concurrent conditions,
however neglect is especially predominant in child maltreatment reports in which the
parent has substance abuse problems (HHS, 1998).
HHS (1998) reveals data from the 1986 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse
(NHSDA) and estimated 8.3 million children live in households in which at least one
parent is either alcoholic or in need of substance abuse treatment. Over 2.1 million of
these children live in families in which the predominant problem is illicit drugs.
Approximately 3.8 million live in families in which the primary problem is alcohol, and
2.4 million ofthese children live with parents who abuse both alcohol and illicit drugs in
combination. In 1996, child protective services (CPS) agencies received more than 3
million children. Substance abuse is more likely to be a factor in reports regarding
younger children, particularly infants, than older children. Substance abuse impairs
parental functioning and has negative impacts on children by putting the child at risk to
develop aggressive behaviors, delinquency, violence, and other selfdestructive behaviors
11
(HHS, 1998, 19-57).
It is difficult to isolate the factors that lead to abuse. It is also hard to classify the
personality characteristics of abusers. Maladaptive parenting can arise in a variety of
ways. The most consistent findings in the child abuse literature is that maltreating parents
often report having been physically, sexually, or emotionally abused or neglected as
children themselves ( HHS, 1998, 25-26).
Substance abusing parents have drugs, not children as their primary concern, and these
children may have negative behaviors due to physical and emotional neglect. According
to the Administration on Children, Youth and Families (ACYF) (1994), in 1990 a
National Survey was conducted by the Child Welfare League of America (CWLA). Of
the caseworkers who responded to the CWLA, 92 percent reported that parental
substance abuse was a factor in reports of physical abuse and neglect. This factor
increases a child's risk ofbecoming abused, neglected, or they may have prior histories of
delinquent behavior due to a lack ofstructure in the home.
ACYF (1994) reports that the Family and Youth Services Bureau (FYSB) administers
funding programs for youths at-risk of becoming runaways or homeless youth. This
program is administered to meet the needs ofyouth who have been abused, neglected, or
have other problems in their home. These youths may have prior histories ofdelinquent
behavior and status offenses. Studies on runaways and homeless youth have focused
primarily on the psychosocial behavior of adolescents as the main cause of why these
youths are runaways. Parental substance abuse in families is a chaotic and dysfunctional
environment for adolescents as well as children. Many adolescents choose to run away
and some are abandoned by their parents because of parental substance abuse. The
General Accounting Office (GAO) (1998) did a study of runaway and homeless youth
services. The study suggested that 18 percent of the youth in shelters reported their
parents abused drugs. Jarvis (1990) conducted a survey of youths at the Southeastern
Network of Youth and Family Services. More than 50 percent identified parental
12
(HHS, 1998, 19-57).
It is difficult to isolate the factors that lead to abuse. It is also hard to classify the
personality characteristics of abusers. Maladaptive parenting can arise in a variety of
ways. The most consistent findings in the child abuse literature is that maltreating parents
often report having been physically, sexually, or emotionally abused or neglected as
children themselves ( HHS, 1998, 25-26).
Substance abusing parents have drugs, not children as their primary concern, and these
children may have negative behaviors due to physical and emotional neglect. According
to the Administration on Children, Youth and Families (ACYF) (1994), in 1990 a
National Survey was conducted by the Child Welfare League of America (CWLA). Of
the caseworkers who responded to the CWLA, 92 percent reported that parental
substance abuse was a factor in reports of physical abuse and neglect. This factor
increases a child's risk ofbecoming abused, neglected, or they may have prior histories of
delinquent behavior due to a lack ofstructure in the home.
ACYF (1994) reports that the Family and Youth Services Bureau (FYSB) administers
funding programs for youths at-risk of becoming runaways or homeless youth. This
program is administered to meet the needs ofyouth who have been abused, neglected, or
have other problems in their home. These youths may have prior histories ofdelinquent
behavior and status offenses. Studies on runaways and homeless youth have focused
primarily on the psychosocial behavior of adolescents as the main cause of why these
youths are runaways. Parental substance abuse in families is a chaotic and dysfunctional
environment for adolescents as well as children. Many adolescents choose to run away
and some are abandoned by their parents because of parental substance abuse. The
General Accounting Office (GAO) (1998) did a study of runaway and homeless youth
services. The study suggested that 18 percent of the youth in shelters reported their
parents abused drugs. Jarvis (1990) conducted a survey of youths at the Southeastern
Network of Youth and Family Services. More than 50 percent identified parental
12
substance abuse as a motivator for their own use of substances. In essence, parental
substance abuse can attribute to juveniles committing status offenses such as a runaway
because ofa dysfunctional family. Parental substance abuse can also be a motivator for
an adolescent to use alcohol and drugs as well ( GAO, 1998, 22).
Humphries (1999) states that mothers who have a history ofcrack-cocaine use report
they were attracted to crack-cocaine as teenagers. Maher (1992) interviewed women who
were runaways, and homeless as teenagers. These women reported they were attracted to
men who offered to help them and supplied them with crack-cocaine. Some children who
see their parents use drugs do in fact go on to use drugs themselves. Parents who use
drugs have children who exhibit delinquency and conduct disorders because of a
dysfunctional family and poor parenting skills. Children are also at-risk of using drugs
themselves which are predictors of juvenile delinquency and conduct disorders. The
Office for Substance Abuse Prevention (aSAP) (1990) states the single best predictor
that a youth might become chemically dependent is having a family member that is
chemically dependent. Disruptions in family management are a major mediating variable
in children's future dysfunctional behavior. Parents who abuse drugs spend less time with
their children and their children will exhibit behavior problems. Behavior problems have
been found to increase a child's risk ofalcohol and drug abuse. aSAP (1990) suggests
children and youth from less supportive families may cope with stress in negative ways.
These high risk youths are more likely to use alcohol and drugs and antisocial behaviors
to help reduce stress ( OSAP,1990, 326-327).
Foster, Macchetto, and Reid (1999) suggest there is no safe haven for these abused
and neglected children of drug and alcohol abusing parents. From 1986 to 1997 the
number ofabused and neglected children in America jumped from 1.4 million to some 3
million. Children whose parents abuse drugs and alcohol are three times likelier to be
physically or sexually assaulted and four times likelier to be neglected than children of
parents who are not substance abusers. In 1998 the National Center on Addiction and
13
substance abuse as a motivator for their own use of substances. In essence, parental
substance abuse can attribute to juveniles committing status offenses such as a runaway
because ofa dysfunctional family. Parental substance abuse can also be a motivator for
an adolescent to use alcohol and drugs as well ( GAO, 1998, 22).
Humphries (1999) states that mothers who have a history ofcrack-cocaine use report
they were attracted to crack-cocaine as teenagers. Maher (1992) interviewed women who
were runaways, and homeless as teenagers. These women reported they were attracted to
men who offered to help them and supplied them with crack-cocaine. Some children who
see their parents use drugs do in fact go on to use drugs themselves. Parents who use
drugs have children who exhibit delinquency and conduct disorders because of a
dysfunctional family and poor parenting skills. Children are also at-risk of using drugs
themselves which are predictors of juvenile delinquency and conduct disorders. The
Office for Substance Abuse Prevention (aSAP) (1990) states the single best predictor
that a youth might become chemically dependent is having a family member that is
chemically dependent. Disruptions in family management are a major mediating variable
in children's future dysfunctional behavior. Parents who abuse drugs spend less time with
their children and their children will exhibit behavior problems. Behavior problems have
been found to increase a child's risk ofalcohol and drug abuse. aSAP (1990) suggests
children and youth from less supportive families may cope with stress in negative ways.
These high risk youths are more likely to use alcohol and drugs and antisocial behaviors
to help reduce stress ( OSAP,1990, 326-327).
Foster, Macchetto, and Reid (1999) suggest there is no safe haven for these abused
and neglected children of drug and alcohol abusing parents. From 1986 to 1997 the
number ofabused and neglected children in America jumped from 1.4 million to some 3
million. Children whose parents abuse drugs and alcohol are three times likelier to be
physically or sexually assaulted and four times likelier to be neglected than children of
parents who are not substance abusers. In 1998 the National Center on Addiction and
13
Substance Abuse (CASA) conducted the first survey about substance abuse and addiction
of front-line professionals in child welfare agencies and family courts. The results
revealed eight of ten professionals surveyed (81.6%) cite alcohol, in combination with
other drugs as the leading substance ofabuse by parents who abuse and neglect children,
7.7 percent alcohol only, 45.8 percent crack-cocaine, 20.5 percent marijuana ( Foster et
aI., 1999, 2).
According to Foster et aI., (1999), " parental substance abuse is found among
conditions such as poverty, a history of having been physically or sexually abused,
depression, other medical illness, unemployment, discrimination and social isolation" (2).
Women who are addicted to alcohol and drugs seem to live chaotic lives that could limit
the stability children need to develop cognitively and emotionally.
Foster et al., (1999) believes that parental substance abusers have poor parenting
skills that may further hamper the development of children. Some ofthese parents also
suffer from mental illnesses like depression. Depression can cause parents to be
emotionally disengaged from their children, and their children's behavior becomes out of
control. The parents have low self esteem and feelings of helplessness. Without
counseling and support, bonding becomes difficult thus, increasing the chance that they
will maltreat their children. Children who are abused and neglected and survive tend to
be angry, antisocial, physically aggressive and even violent. They sometimes perform
poorly in school and engage in delinquent or criminal behavior. Furthermore, these
children who have suffered maltreatment may use alcohol or drugs as a way to cope with
depression and internal problems; their maltreatment may lead to external behavior such
as aggression, delinquency and antisocial behavior (Foster et aI., 1999,21).
In another study, the effects ofparental drug abuse on the psychosocial functioning of
latency-age children (from 6-10 years old) were discussed. Dore, Kauffinan, Zlupko, and
Lani-Granfort (1996) indicated that parental drug-related behavior threatens the
psychosocial development ofchildren in many ways. The physiological effects ofmood-
14
Substance Abuse (CASA) conducted the first survey about substance abuse and addiction
of front-line professionals in child welfare agencies and family courts. The results
revealed eight of ten professionals surveyed (81.6%) cite alcohol, in combination with
other drugs as the leading substance ofabuse by parents who abuse and neglect children,
7.7 percent alcohol only, 45.8 percent crack-cocaine, 20.5 percent marijuana ( Foster et
aI., 1999, 2).
According to Foster et aI., (1999), " parental substance abuse is found among
conditions such as poverty, a history of having been physically or sexually abused,
depression, other medical illness, unemployment, discrimination and social isolation" (2).
Women who are addicted to alcohol and drugs seem to live chaotic lives that could limit
the stability children need to develop cognitively and emotionally.
Foster et al., (1999) believes that parental substance abusers have poor parenting
skills that may further hamper the development of children. Some ofthese parents also
suffer from mental illnesses like depression. Depression can cause parents to be
emotionally disengaged from their children, and their children's behavior becomes out of
control. The parents have low self esteem and feelings of helplessness. Without
counseling and support, bonding becomes difficult thus, increasing the chance that they
will maltreat their children. Children who are abused and neglected and survive tend to
be angry, antisocial, physically aggressive and even violent. They sometimes perform
poorly in school and engage in delinquent or criminal behavior. Furthermore, these
children who have suffered maltreatment may use alcohol or drugs as a way to cope with
depression and internal problems; their maltreatment may lead to external behavior such
as aggression, delinquency and antisocial behavior (Foster et aI., 1999,21).
In another study, the effects ofparental drug abuse on the psychosocial functioning of
latency-age children (from 6-10 years old) were discussed. Dore, Kauffinan, Zlupko, and
Lani-Granfort (1996) indicated that parental drug-related behavior threatens the
psychosocial development ofchildren in many ways. The physiological effects ofmood-
14
altering drugs on users includes central nervous system depression (opiates) or
stimulation (cocaine), emotional liability, irritability, and reduced social inhibitions. This
can cause anxiety and apprehension for children who experience these mood swings in
their parent's behavior. They may be warm and accepting one minute, rejecting and
punitive the next (Davis, 1990). An addicted parent may see a child do something and
ignore the behavior. The same incident may occur causing the parent to react with rage.
Some experts believe that this pattern ofchronic overstimulation, coupled with emotional
deprivation, leads to conduct problems observed in children from substance-abusing
families (Markowitz, 1993). Dore et al., (1996) explained that parents who abuse drugs
experience withdrawal when they do not have the drug. Furthermore those who smoke
crack-cocaine, after the "high" is gone, experience anxiety, depression, paranoia, and
intense craving for returning to that "high" once again. Substance abusing parents do not
have the ability to meet a young child's needs for structure and consistency. The parents
often fail to develop problem solving skills and strategies for coping with stress and
frustration required for effective parenting. Such children are more likely to develop
behavior problems, anxiety disorders, and affective disorders than children of non 
depressed parents. The assumption is that this pattern of overstimulation coupled with
emotional deprivation leads to conduct problems observed in children from substance
abusing families. Drug addiction can cause a parent to leave their children alone to seek
drugs. The psychological consequences ofinconsistency and abandonment are severe to
the young child. Researchers on child maltreatment are beginning to identify chronic
neglect as a long term psychosocial consequence for children ( Dore et aI., 1998, 1-8).
Dore et al., (1996) also indicates that several studies have examined locus ofcontrol in
children ofsubstance abusing parents. Their findings revealed that children feel helpless
and ineffective in coping with the chaos in their homes. The children adopt the beliefthat
they have little control over other events in their lives. Externalized locus ofcontrol has
negative implications for the future life of children because it inhibits proactive self-
15
altering drugs on users includes central nervous system depression (opiates) or
stimulation (cocaine), emotional liability, irritability, and reduced social inhibitions. This
can cause anxiety and apprehension for children who experience these mood swings in
their parent's behavior. They may be warm and accepting one minute, rejecting and
punitive the next (Davis, 1990). An addicted parent may see a child do something and
ignore the behavior. The same incident may occur causing the parent to react with rage.
Some experts believe that this pattern ofchronic overstimulation, coupled with emotional
deprivation, leads to conduct problems observed in children from substance-abusing
families (Markowitz, 1993). Dore et al., (1996) explained that parents who abuse drugs
experience withdrawal when they do not have the drug. Furthermore those who smoke
crack-cocaine, after the "high" is gone, experience anxiety, depression, paranoia, and
intense craving for returning to that "high" once again. Substance abusing parents do not
have the ability to meet a young child's needs for structure and consistency. The parents
often fail to develop problem solving skills and strategies for coping with stress and
frustration required for effective parenting. Such children are more likely to develop
behavior problems, anxiety disorders, and affective disorders than children of non 
depressed parents. The assumption is that this pattern of overstimulation coupled with
emotional deprivation leads to conduct problems observed in children from substance
abusing families. Drug addiction can cause a parent to leave their children alone to seek
drugs. The psychological consequences ofinconsistency and abandonment are severe to
the young child. Researchers on child maltreatment are beginning to identify chronic
neglect as a long term psychosocial consequence for children ( Dore et aI., 1998, 1-8).
Dore et al., (1996) also indicates that several studies have examined locus ofcontrol in
children ofsubstance abusing parents. Their findings revealed that children feel helpless
and ineffective in coping with the chaos in their homes. The children adopt the beliefthat
they have little control over other events in their lives. Externalized locus ofcontrol has
negative implications for the future life of children because it inhibits proactive self-
15
actualization. This locus of control has been associated with the increased risk of teen
pregnancy, drug and alcohol consumption, and delinquent behavior. The study also
indicates that drug involved homes and neighborhoods are often violent places. These
children see violence and consequently have not learned that you should not commit
violent acts. These children react to violence by doing delinquent acts themselves. Moses
(1999) suggests severe stress can have a harmful impact on adolescent emotional
adjustment and has been associated with the development of various forms of
psychological distress. Adolescents have not made the transition to adulthood and have
not fully developed cognitive and coping abilities to deal with stress. They are at risk for
stress-related emotional problems. Dore et aI., (1996) states research suggest that
depression and hostility may be two responses to stress-inducing traumatic violence.
Latency-age children coming from such environments, may have little knowledge on how
to manage feelings of anxiety, fear, or anger due to negative parenting. High levels of
interpersonal aggression are observed in these children. Attention deficits and
hyperactivity are often observed in young children of drug abusing parents. This is a
function ofdrug exposure in utero, a consequence ofgrowing up in a substance abusing
family, or a combination ofboth (Dore et aI., 1996,2-22).
Dore et aI., (1996) states these children fmd it very hard to concentrate and focus
because ofthe biological and environmental factors they deal with daily. Difficulty in self
regulation ofbehavior and inability to focus are barriers to classroom learning for these
latency-age children. Parental drug addiction affects the child's psychosocial
development. Latency age children, from drug involved homes, have few social and
cognitive skills to keep up with the work in the classroom. It is suggested that school
based programs be implemented that address concerns about parental substance abuse.
These programs will teach children alternative coping strategies to reduce anxiety, social
isolation, enhance self-esteem, and reduce problematic behavior.
Dore et aI., (1996) reviews current clinical observations and research fmdings ofthe
16
actualization. This locus of control has been associated with the increased risk of teen
pregnancy, drug and alcohol consumption, and delinquent behavior. The study also
indicates that drug involved homes and neighborhoods are often violent places. These
children see violence and consequently have not learned that you should not commit
violent acts. These children react to violence by doing delinquent acts themselves. Moses
(1999) suggests severe stress can have a harmful impact on adolescent emotional
adjustment and has been associated with the development of various forms of
psychological distress. Adolescents have not made the transition to adulthood and have
not fully developed cognitive and coping abilities to deal with stress. They are at risk for
stress-related emotional problems. Dore et aI., (1996) states research suggest that
depression and hostility may be two responses to stress-inducing traumatic violence.
Latency-age children coming from such environments, may have little knowledge on how
to manage feelings of anxiety, fear, or anger due to negative parenting. High levels of
interpersonal aggression are observed in these children. Attention deficits and
hyperactivity are often observed in young children of drug abusing parents. This is a
function ofdrug exposure in utero, a consequence ofgrowing up in a substance abusing
family, or a combination ofboth (Dore et aI., 1996,2-22).
Dore et aI., (1996) states these children fmd it very hard to concentrate and focus
because ofthe biological and environmental factors they deal with daily. Difficulty in self
regulation ofbehavior and inability to focus are barriers to classroom learning for these
latency-age children. Parental drug addiction affects the child's psychosocial
development. Latency age children, from drug involved homes, have few social and
cognitive skills to keep up with the work in the classroom. It is suggested that school
based programs be implemented that address concerns about parental substance abuse.
These programs will teach children alternative coping strategies to reduce anxiety, social
isolation, enhance self-esteem, and reduce problematic behavior.
Dore et aI., (1996) reviews current clinical observations and research fmdings ofthe
16
effects of parental drug abuse on the psychosocial functioning of latency-age children.
Parental substance abuse can cause a parent to neglect their children when time and
money is directed towards the drugs only. Schenling (1994) suggests that drug abuse in
the United States is of epidemic proportions, especially in the inner cities. Special
attention should be focused on drug abuse among parents, because their addictions have a
negative impact on their children. Dore et aI., (1996) states during latency children should
implement cognitive and social skills in primary school. A child who has a parent who
uses drugs and failed to show a positive attachment, the child may exhibit incomplete
resolution ofearlier development tasks. This leaves the child poorly equipped to master
the tasks of latency, leaving the child feeling inadequate and inferior. The child at this
age may be cognitively unable to understand the mood swings ofthe adult. The child sees
the sober parent act different from the drug abusing parent. The parent can at times be
violent and self-destructive. This can cause confusion and anxiety in a child who simply
does not understand what is going on. Responses ofdrug-abusing parents to their children
are often unreliable and erratic. According to Markowitz (1993) " some experts believe
that this pattern ofchronic overstimulation coupled with emotional deprivation leads to
conduct problems observed in children from substance-abusing families" (3).
In latency, locus ofcontrol affects the child's view ofselfand his/her relationship
to the world. Studies have identified symptoms of anxiety, depression, and low self 
esteem. These symptoms seem to occur because these children repress their own wishes,
feelings (especially anger) and needs in the process ofbecoming expert readers oftheir
addicted parents emotional state. Also, oftentimes guilt and shame occur because children
actually believe that a parent's behavior is their fault. They believe if they were better
behaved their parents would no longer use drugs. Children in substance abusing families
feel isolated and alone. Developing peer relationships is essential in primary development
in latency, but difficult for such children. They believe they are different from other
children and withdraw socially. They lack appropriate parental modeling for
17
effects of parental drug abuse on the psychosocial functioning of latency-age children.
Parental substance abuse can cause a parent to neglect their children when time and
money is directed towards the drugs only. Schenling (1994) suggests that drug abuse in
the United States is of epidemic proportions, especially in the inner cities. Special
attention should be focused on drug abuse among parents, because their addictions have a
negative impact on their children. Dore et aI., (1996) states during latency children should
implement cognitive and social skills in primary school. A child who has a parent who
uses drugs and failed to show a positive attachment, the child may exhibit incomplete
resolution ofearlier development tasks. This leaves the child poorly equipped to master
the tasks of latency, leaving the child feeling inadequate and inferior. The child at this
age may be cognitively unable to understand the mood swings ofthe adult. The child sees
the sober parent act different from the drug abusing parent. The parent can at times be
violent and self-destructive. This can cause confusion and anxiety in a child who simply
does not understand what is going on. Responses ofdrug-abusing parents to their children
are often unreliable and erratic. According to Markowitz (1993) " some experts believe
that this pattern ofchronic overstimulation coupled with emotional deprivation leads to
conduct problems observed in children from substance-abusing families" (3).
In latency, locus ofcontrol affects the child's view ofselfand his/her relationship
to the world. Studies have identified symptoms of anxiety, depression, and low self 
esteem. These symptoms seem to occur because these children repress their own wishes,
feelings (especially anger) and needs in the process ofbecoming expert readers oftheir
addicted parents emotional state. Also, oftentimes guilt and shame occur because children
actually believe that a parent's behavior is their fault. They believe if they were better
behaved their parents would no longer use drugs. Children in substance abusing families
feel isolated and alone. Developing peer relationships is essential in primary development
in latency, but difficult for such children. They believe they are different from other
children and withdraw socially. They lack appropriate parental modeling for
17
understanding social exchange and have few social skills to develop peer relationships.
Latency-age children in drug homes and neighborhoods are exposed to violence and
conflict. Such children have little knowledge on how to implement problem solving.
They have a problem managing feelings such as anxiety, fear, or anger. High levels of
interpersonal aggressions are frequently observed in such children (Dore et al., 1996, 5).
Graham, Joffe, and Werner (1999) suggests that health care professionals learn
screening techniques for early intervention ofchildren and youth from families affected
by substance abuse. Children manifest psychosomatic illnesses such as emotional,
anxiety, conduct disorders, and school problems because of parental drug abuse. To
effectively address the issue ofparental substance abuse, health care providers need to be
trained. Screening for alcohol and other drug use within families should begin with a
detailed psychosocial history. Evidence ofchild behavior problems, early school failure,
parenting difficulties, and family conflict are all commonly present in families affected
by substance abuse. Graham et al., (1999) suggests negative child behavior is a predictor
that there may be parental substance abuse in the home. They also state that screening
and early identification ofchildren affected by parental substance abuse must occur in
infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Health care providers need to be trained to identify
children exposed to parental addiction. This training is needed for practitioners so the
health care provider can detect problems and intervene effectively. This will promote
clinical responsibility for the care of children. Finally, early detection will encourage
practitioners to assist these children and families in seeking treatment and promoting
health (Graham et al" 1999,4-16).
Graham et aI., (1999) suggests all health care professional have a clinical
responsibility to recognize associated health problems in children ofsubstance-abusing
parents. Parents who are substance abusers are not waiting in a doctor's office, clinic, or
hospital to admit they have a substance abuse problem. Health care providers need to be
trained in the identification ofchildren and youth exposed to parental addiction at the
18
understanding social exchange and have few social skills to develop peer relationships.
Latency-age children in drug homes and neighborhoods are exposed to violence and
conflict. Such children have little knowledge on how to implement problem solving.
They have a problem managing feelings such as anxiety, fear, or anger. High levels of
interpersonal aggressions are frequently observed in such children (Dore et al., 1996, 5).
Graham, Joffe, and Werner (1999) suggests that health care professionals learn
screening techniques for early intervention ofchildren and youth from families affected
by substance abuse. Children manifest psychosomatic illnesses such as emotional,
anxiety, conduct disorders, and school problems because of parental drug abuse. To
effectively address the issue ofparental substance abuse, health care providers need to be
trained. Screening for alcohol and other drug use within families should begin with a
detailed psychosocial history. Evidence ofchild behavior problems, early school failure,
parenting difficulties, and family conflict are all commonly present in families affected
by substance abuse. Graham et al., (1999) suggests negative child behavior is a predictor
that there may be parental substance abuse in the home. They also state that screening
and early identification ofchildren affected by parental substance abuse must occur in
infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Health care providers need to be trained to identify
children exposed to parental addiction. This training is needed for practitioners so the
health care provider can detect problems and intervene effectively. This will promote
clinical responsibility for the care of children. Finally, early detection will encourage
practitioners to assist these children and families in seeking treatment and promoting
health (Graham et al" 1999,4-16).
Graham et aI., (1999) suggests all health care professional have a clinical
responsibility to recognize associated health problems in children ofsubstance-abusing
parents. Parents who are substance abusers are not waiting in a doctor's office, clinic, or
hospital to admit they have a substance abuse problem. Health care providers need to be
trained in the identification ofchildren and youth exposed to parental addiction at the
18
initial screening. Health care professionals should be able to detect any abuse by the
questions asked and the training. The purpose ofthe initial screening is to identify
families with alcohol or drug use that put children and youth at risk for having physical or
mental health complications. The information obtained is to help decide ifadditional
assessment and assist in treatment planning for the entire family is needed (Graham et aI.,
1999, 1-3).
Graham et aI., (1999) states information about family alcohol and drug use should be
obtained when there are indications offamily dysfunction, child behaviors, emotional
problems, and school difficulties. The main purpose ofthe training is to hopefully get the
parents or child who does not want this family secret exposed into treatment. The
physician must be trained in a way where they are willing to offer health services that
will help the entire family. The physician must not be a threat to the clients or they will
never open up and the children will not be able to get health services they need. Children
who manifest these emotional problems surely need someone to administer health
services. Many substance-abusing parents themselves are children ofsubstance abusers.
Inquiring about family histories ofaddiction with parents can help them put their own
substance abuse in an intergenerational context. This can motivate some parents to seek
treatment to prevent passing on this selfdestructive behavior to their children as their
parents did to them Children and adolescents are at risk ofphysical and sexual abuse
because ofparental substance abuse (Graham et aI., 1999,9).
In another study by Bentler, Newcomb, and Stein (1993) intergenerational similarity
ofantisocial behaviors and inappropriate parenting behaviors seem to manifest in
grandmothers and mothers. Mothers who used drugs exhibited conduct disorders as
children, which is a precursor to antisocial behavior in adulthood. This study is a
retrospective study and it reflects back on grandmothers and mothers displaying negative
parenting behaviors. Mothers may have learned inappropriate parenting behaviors and
perpetuated the drug abuse behaviors oftheir parents. The mothers in the study have
19
initial screening. Health care professionals should be able to detect any abuse by the
questions asked and the training. The purpose ofthe initial screening is to identify
families with alcohol or drug use that put children and youth at risk for having physical or
mental health complications. The information obtained is to help decide ifadditional
assessment and assist in treatment planning for the entire family is needed (Graham et aI.,
1999, 1-3).
Graham et aI., (1999) states information about family alcohol and drug use should be
obtained when there are indications offamily dysfunction, child behaviors, emotional
problems, and school difficulties. The main purpose ofthe training is to hopefully get the
parents or child who does not want this family secret exposed into treatment. The
physician must be trained in a way where they are willing to offer health services that
will help the entire family. The physician must not be a threat to the clients or they will
never open up and the children will not be able to get health services they need. Children
who manifest these emotional problems surely need someone to administer health
services. Many substance-abusing parents themselves are children ofsubstance abusers.
Inquiring about family histories ofaddiction with parents can help them put their own
substance abuse in an intergenerational context. This can motivate some parents to seek
treatment to prevent passing on this selfdestructive behavior to their children as their
parents did to them Children and adolescents are at risk ofphysical and sexual abuse
because ofparental substance abuse (Graham et aI., 1999,9).
In another study by Bentler, Newcomb, and Stein (1993) intergenerational similarity
ofantisocial behaviors and inappropriate parenting behaviors seem to manifest in
grandmothers and mothers. Mothers who used drugs exhibited conduct disorders as
children, which is a precursor to antisocial behavior in adulthood. This study is a
retrospective study and it reflects back on grandmothers and mothers displaying negative
parenting behaviors. Mothers may have learned inappropriate parenting behaviors and
perpetuated the drug abuse behaviors oftheir parents. The mothers in the study have
19
children who exhibit problem behaviors. The authors hypothesized a direct path from the
mother's behavior to their children's behavioral problems. Bentler et a!., (1993) suggests
mothers may have learned inappropriate parenting behaviors, experienced marital
discord, or perpetuated the drug abuse behaviors from one or both ofher parents. The
measures ofgrandparent drug use and abuse also help predict child behavioral problems.
A mother with drug or alcohol problems is less likely to create and maintain a healthy
child-rearing environment. The authors propose that the causal flow will be from
grandparents to mothers and from mothers to children, with a direct influence from
grandparents to grandchildren as well. This study suggests there can be a pattern of
negative child behavior problems from generation to generation. This research suggests
that the grandparent's drug abuse is a factor for behavioral problems among young
children, and foreshadow drug use and delinquency among adolescents (Bentler et
al.,1993, 32-33).
Bentler et al., (1993) examines behavioral and development problems in children
two-eight years ofage. They hypothesize a direct path to children's behavioral problems
from grandparents drug abuse problems. The results indicated that there is a greater
association between grandparents and maternal drug use and a variety ofbehavior
problems for boys and girls. Behavioral problems among young children, especially
acting-out behaviors, foreshadow drug use and delinquency among adolescents. Simons,
Robertson, and Downs (1989) suggests that the flow ofintergenerational influence is
from parental rejection to delinquency.
Mothers who have good self-esteem communicate better with their children and
provide them with autonomy. They help give the child nurturance and control. Parents
who report low control experience negative effects and feelings ofbeing threatened,
which may influence their child-rearing practices. Parental psychiatric status has been
associated with increased child behavioral problems (Bentler et al., 1993, 31). A mother
with a drug or alcohol problem is less likely to create and maintain a healthy child-
20
children who exhibit problem behaviors. The authors hypothesized a direct path from the
mother's behavior to their children's behavioral problems. Bentler et a!., (1993) suggests
mothers may have learned inappropriate parenting behaviors, experienced marital
discord, or perpetuated the drug abuse behaviors from one or both ofher parents. The
measures ofgrandparent drug use and abuse also help predict child behavioral problems.
A mother with drug or alcohol problems is less likely to create and maintain a healthy
child-rearing environment. The authors propose that the causal flow will be from
grandparents to mothers and from mothers to children, with a direct influence from
grandparents to grandchildren as well. This study suggests there can be a pattern of
negative child behavior problems from generation to generation. This research suggests
that the grandparent's drug abuse is a factor for behavioral problems among young
children, and foreshadow drug use and delinquency among adolescents (Bentler et
al.,1993, 32-33).
Bentler et al., (1993) examines behavioral and development problems in children
two-eight years ofage. They hypothesize a direct path to children's behavioral problems
from grandparents drug abuse problems. The results indicated that there is a greater
association between grandparents and maternal drug use and a variety ofbehavior
problems for boys and girls. Behavioral problems among young children, especially
acting-out behaviors, foreshadow drug use and delinquency among adolescents. Simons,
Robertson, and Downs (1989) suggests that the flow ofintergenerational influence is
from parental rejection to delinquency.
Mothers who have good self-esteem communicate better with their children and
provide them with autonomy. They help give the child nurturance and control. Parents
who report low control experience negative effects and feelings ofbeing threatened,
which may influence their child-rearing practices. Parental psychiatric status has been
associated with increased child behavioral problems (Bentler et al., 1993, 31). A mother
with a drug or alcohol problem is less likely to create and maintain a healthy child-
20
rearing environment. This mother now becomes a grandmother and her ineffective
parenting skills and drug use has now become a three-generation transmission. Studies
across the generations have found moderate intergenerational similarity for antisocial
behavior. The study also revealed similarities in attitudes and drug use between the study
participants and their parents, and grandparents as well. A mother's drug use was a
predictor ofher child's drug use, deviance, and emotional distress. This study confIrmed
intergenerational transmission ofmaladaptive behaviors. Mothers may have developed
coping problems during their own childhood or adolescence that interfered with their own
parenting abilities, especially in the domain ofnurturance and control. Grandparents drug
abuse problems predicted acting-out behaviors for both boys and girls (Bentler et aI.,
1993,31-37).
Another study by Gable and Shindledecker (1993) discusses how parental abuse of
nonalcoholic substances seems to be more important than parental alcohol abuse in
predicting severe aggressive and antisocial behavior. Substance abuse in fathers, other
than alcohol, also seem more important than substance abuse in mothers in predicting
severe aggression and conduct disorders in youth.
According to Gabel et ai. (1993) "severe aggressive/destructive behavior
is defmed as aggression towards adults using an object as a weapon in
physical altercations, injury to others, cruelty to animals, fIre setting
and destruction ofproperty... Parental substance abuse was indicated
by clinician recorded history ofabuse ofeither alcohol or other
substances ofabuse (e.g.. cocaine, heroin) by either biological parent" (49).
Gabel et aI., (1993) states they have been interested in the outcome ofchildren and
adolescents treated in various mental health settings. Two preadmission variables were
defmed to reflect disturbed parent/family background (parental substance abuse and
suspected child abuse or maltreatment) and two preadmission variables to reflect
individual child behaviors (severe aggressive/destructive behavior and suicidal ideation
or behavior). These four variables were used as predictors with recommended placement
21
rearing environment. This mother now becomes a grandmother and her ineffective
parenting skills and drug use has now become a three-generation transmission. Studies
across the generations have found moderate intergenerational similarity for antisocial
behavior. The study also revealed similarities in attitudes and drug use between the study
participants and their parents, and grandparents as well. A mother's drug use was a
predictor ofher child's drug use, deviance, and emotional distress. This study confIrmed
intergenerational transmission ofmaladaptive behaviors. Mothers may have developed
coping problems during their own childhood or adolescence that interfered with their own
parenting abilities, especially in the domain ofnurturance and control. Grandparents drug
abuse problems predicted acting-out behaviors for both boys and girls (Bentler et aI.,
1993,31-37).
Another study by Gable and Shindledecker (1993) discusses how parental abuse of
nonalcoholic substances seems to be more important than parental alcohol abuse in
predicting severe aggressive and antisocial behavior. Substance abuse in fathers, other
than alcohol, also seem more important than substance abuse in mothers in predicting
severe aggression and conduct disorders in youth.
According to Gabel et ai. (1993) "severe aggressive/destructive behavior
is defmed as aggression towards adults using an object as a weapon in
physical altercations, injury to others, cruelty to animals, fIre setting
and destruction ofproperty... Parental substance abuse was indicated
by clinician recorded history ofabuse ofeither alcohol or other
substances ofabuse (e.g.. cocaine, heroin) by either biological parent" (49).
Gabel et aI., (1993) states they have been interested in the outcome ofchildren and
adolescents treated in various mental health settings. Two preadmission variables were
defmed to reflect disturbed parent/family background (parental substance abuse and
suspected child abuse or maltreatment) and two preadmission variables to reflect
individual child behaviors (severe aggressive/destructive behavior and suicidal ideation
or behavior). These four variables were used as predictors with recommended placement
21
on discharge from treatment as the outcome variable. Through a number of individual
studies and combined data, the two pre-admission variables of severe
aggressive/destructive and parental substance abuse have most consistently and
independently predicted poor outcome in the day hospital of children and adolescents
studied (Gabel et aI., 1993, 49). Gable et ai. (1993) suggests there is a relationship
between parental substance abuse and severe aggressive/destructive behavior and conduct
disorders in hospital treated children and adolescents and that these relationships are
understood best when the parameters are specified. Three findings emerge in the current
work: First, alcohol abuse alone is not as important as other substances of abuse in
predicting aggression and or conduct disorder in children and adolescents. Second, the
effect on parental substance abuse is greater than the effect on maternal substance abuse
in predicting aggression and or conduct disorder in hospital treated youth. Third, parental
substance abuse is more impressively associated with conduct disorder when conduct
disorder occurs with severe aggressive/destructive behavior. Parental substance abuse
contributes to the development ofaggressive behavior in children and adolescents that is
not necessarily associated with other forms of antisocial behavior, as reflected in a
diagnosis ofconduct disorder ( Gabel et al., 54-55).
Gabel et al., (1993) states parental substance abuse commonly was associated with
severe aggressive/destructive behavior. There is evidence from various sources that
aggression itself, when considered as a trait, is stabilized over time and generations. It
may be that this trait or allied traits such as impulsitivity or sensation seeking which is
linked to childhood conduct disorder, predispose the vulnerable child or adolescent to
later substance abuse.
In another study Carey and Taylor (1998) find a significant positive correlation
among conduct disorders (CD), antisocial personality (ASP), alcohol abuse, and drug
abuse. The adolescents studied were from a residential treatment facility for substance
abusers. This proband group was compared to a controlled group contacted by phone of
22
on discharge from treatment as the outcome variable. Through a number of individual
studies and combined data, the two pre-admission variables of severe
aggressive/destructive and parental substance abuse have most consistently and
independently predicted poor outcome in the day hospital of children and adolescents
studied (Gabel et aI., 1993, 49). Gable et ai. (1993) suggests there is a relationship
between parental substance abuse and severe aggressive/destructive behavior and conduct
disorders in hospital treated children and adolescents and that these relationships are
understood best when the parameters are specified. Three findings emerge in the current
work: First, alcohol abuse alone is not as important as other substances of abuse in
predicting aggression and or conduct disorder in children and adolescents. Second, the
effect on parental substance abuse is greater than the effect on maternal substance abuse
in predicting aggression and or conduct disorder in hospital treated youth. Third, parental
substance abuse is more impressively associated with conduct disorder when conduct
disorder occurs with severe aggressive/destructive behavior. Parental substance abuse
contributes to the development ofaggressive behavior in children and adolescents that is
not necessarily associated with other forms of antisocial behavior, as reflected in a
diagnosis ofconduct disorder ( Gabel et al., 54-55).
Gabel et al., (1993) states parental substance abuse commonly was associated with
severe aggressive/destructive behavior. There is evidence from various sources that
aggression itself, when considered as a trait, is stabilized over time and generations. It
may be that this trait or allied traits such as impulsitivity or sensation seeking which is
linked to childhood conduct disorder, predispose the vulnerable child or adolescent to
later substance abuse.
In another study Carey and Taylor (1998) find a significant positive correlation
among conduct disorders (CD), antisocial personality (ASP), alcohol abuse, and drug
abuse. The adolescents studied were from a residential treatment facility for substance
abusers. This proband group was compared to a controlled group contacted by phone of
22
families with adolescents. The researchers concluded that by identifying males with
multiple problems were from families with behavioral problems and substance abuse
problems. Carey et ai. (1998) states a growing body of research suggests that certain
forms ofpsychopathology are correlated in teenage substance abusers and their relatives.
Drug abuse, alcohol abuse, CD/ASP tend to be common within individual families. The
precise nature of familial association among drugs, alcohol, and CD/ASP is best
documented in adoption studies in which genetic effects may be separated from
environmental effects. An important series of adoption studies were conducted and the
fmdings revealed an equal prevalence ofdrug abuse in male and female adoptees. Males
showed higher rates of alcohol problems and CD/ASP than females. There were also
significantly comorbidity among these three disorders. Adoptee drug use by both males
and females was significantly predicted both by alcohol abuse and by the number ofASP
symptoms in the biological parents. Alcohol abuse in the adoptee also was predicted by
these two types ofbehavior in the biological parents. This suggests that genetics account
for the comorbidity among drug abuse, alcohol abuse, and antisocial behavior (Carey et
aI., 1998, 638).
Carey et al., (1998) also suggests from the findings of their study that there was a
correlation among CD/ASP, alcohol abuse, and drug abuse. They interviewed relatives of
probands had higher symptom counts for alcohol abuse dependence, drug abuse
dependence, and CD/ASP than the relatives of the control group. The present report
supports the concept that alcohol abuse, CD/ASP, and drug abuse represent a cluster of
disorders common to families of children with behavioral problems, substance abuse
problems, or both. According to Moss, Vanyukov, Majumder, Kirisci, and Tarter (1995),
" their study suggests that both paternal and alcohol abuse and paternal drug abuse may
share common features that exert an adverse impact on the psychosocial adaptation of
their male offspring" (355). Genetic and environment factors are influenced by these
effects. Prepubertal sons (6-10 yrs.) of polysubstance user fathers demonstrate
23
families with adolescents. The researchers concluded that by identifying males with
multiple problems were from families with behavioral problems and substance abuse
problems. Carey et ai. (1998) states a growing body of research suggests that certain
forms ofpsychopathology are correlated in teenage substance abusers and their relatives.
Drug abuse, alcohol abuse, CD/ASP tend to be common within individual families. The
precise nature of familial association among drugs, alcohol, and CD/ASP is best
documented in adoption studies in which genetic effects may be separated from
environmental effects. An important series of adoption studies were conducted and the
fmdings revealed an equal prevalence ofdrug abuse in male and female adoptees. Males
showed higher rates of alcohol problems and CD/ASP than females. There were also
significantly comorbidity among these three disorders. Adoptee drug use by both males
and females was significantly predicted both by alcohol abuse and by the number ofASP
symptoms in the biological parents. Alcohol abuse in the adoptee also was predicted by
these two types ofbehavior in the biological parents. This suggests that genetics account
for the comorbidity among drug abuse, alcohol abuse, and antisocial behavior (Carey et
aI., 1998, 638).
Carey et al., (1998) also suggests from the findings of their study that there was a
correlation among CD/ASP, alcohol abuse, and drug abuse. They interviewed relatives of
probands had higher symptom counts for alcohol abuse dependence, drug abuse
dependence, and CD/ASP than the relatives of the control group. The present report
supports the concept that alcohol abuse, CD/ASP, and drug abuse represent a cluster of
disorders common to families of children with behavioral problems, substance abuse
problems, or both. According to Moss, Vanyukov, Majumder, Kirisci, and Tarter (1995),
" their study suggests that both paternal and alcohol abuse and paternal drug abuse may
share common features that exert an adverse impact on the psychosocial adaptation of
their male offspring" (355). Genetic and environment factors are influenced by these
effects. Prepubertal sons (6-10 yrs.) of polysubstance user fathers demonstrate
23
significantly more externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors, low verbal
performance, and full-scale IQ scores, and reduced school achievement than sons of
control fathers ( Moss et at, 1995, 355).
Howard (2000) found that many adults receiving treatment for substance abuse, who
have a history of childhood abuse and, neglect have many other problems. They may
have coexisting psychiatric disorders such as major depression, suicidal thoughts, PTSD,
and dissociative symptoms. Clients who are in treatment will benefit from understanding
how severe and chronic physical, emotional, and sexual abuse in their childhood can
affect memory and emotions long after the abuse has stopped. The long term
consequences ofphysical battering could include brain damage (learning disabilities or
mental retardation), aggressive behavior, a lack of impulse control, and physical
limitations. It is so important for these clients to get treatment and begin to deal with their
psychiatric disorders. Without treatment, is it possible for a parent with these existing
conditions to provide for a child's basic needs? (Howard, 2000, 18).
According to the Office for Substance Abuse Prevention (aSAP) (1990)," the risk of
poor outcomes may be exacerbated for children of parents with coexisting alcohol or
other drug abuse and mental illness" (159). aSAP (1990) explains that children of
depressive or psychiatrically disturbed mothers exhibit a higher frequency of behavior
problems, emotional instability, and academic difficulties (160). As a group, alcohol and
other drug abusers, tend to exhibit a wide range of psychopathology. It is unclear,
however, if the psychiatric disturbances occurred before the addiction or developed
because of it. Once sobriety is achieved, there is some evidence that the psychiatric
symptoms may stop. However, psychiatric problems have also been found to be
independent ofsubstance use in the drug-using population. Whatever the case may be, it
is evident that psychiatric problems are present while drugs are being used. Parents will
probably have a problem exhibiting good parenting skills while manifesting impairments
including: psychological difficulties, personality disorders, affective instability, behavior
24
significantly more externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors, low verbal
performance, and full-scale IQ scores, and reduced school achievement than sons of
control fathers ( Moss et at, 1995, 355).
Howard (2000) found that many adults receiving treatment for substance abuse, who
have a history of childhood abuse and, neglect have many other problems. They may
have coexisting psychiatric disorders such as major depression, suicidal thoughts, PTSD,
and dissociative symptoms. Clients who are in treatment will benefit from understanding
how severe and chronic physical, emotional, and sexual abuse in their childhood can
affect memory and emotions long after the abuse has stopped. The long term
consequences ofphysical battering could include brain damage (learning disabilities or
mental retardation), aggressive behavior, a lack of impulse control, and physical
limitations. It is so important for these clients to get treatment and begin to deal with their
psychiatric disorders. Without treatment, is it possible for a parent with these existing
conditions to provide for a child's basic needs? (Howard, 2000, 18).
According to the Office for Substance Abuse Prevention (aSAP) (1990)," the risk of
poor outcomes may be exacerbated for children of parents with coexisting alcohol or
other drug abuse and mental illness" (159). aSAP (1990) explains that children of
depressive or psychiatrically disturbed mothers exhibit a higher frequency of behavior
problems, emotional instability, and academic difficulties (160). As a group, alcohol and
other drug abusers, tend to exhibit a wide range of psychopathology. It is unclear,
however, if the psychiatric disturbances occurred before the addiction or developed
because of it. Once sobriety is achieved, there is some evidence that the psychiatric
symptoms may stop. However, psychiatric problems have also been found to be
independent ofsubstance use in the drug-using population. Whatever the case may be, it
is evident that psychiatric problems are present while drugs are being used. Parents will
probably have a problem exhibiting good parenting skills while manifesting impairments
including: psychological difficulties, personality disorders, affective instability, behavior
24
dysfunction, low selfesteem, and poor communication (OSAP, 1990, 160).
OASP (1990) suggests drug addiction and alcohol use tends to run in families. A high
proportion of adult drug users are the offspring of alcoholics or other drug users. In
addition to familial drug use, women abusers are more likely than non-abusers to have a
history ofchildhood traumas including physical and sexual abuse, and are caught up in
intergenerational alcohol or drug abuse. As a result, addicted mothers lack appropriate
role models for parenting which leads to dysfunctional, deficient parenting. When parents
are drug addicted, their money, time, and emotional investments are diverted from the
needs ofthe child to the demands ofthe addiction. Very little guidelines or discipline is
provided. The daily activities are always inconsistent because of the pursuit of drugs.
Children may develop a range ofcoping mechanisms in order to survive in their chaotic
environment. Many of them will have impaired social and psychological functioning
because of negative parenting. The behaviors found in children of chemically involved
parents, coming to the attention of child protective services include: emotional
depression, manifested by a non-caring, defeated attitude; victim behavior characterized
by a desperate need for approval; antisocial, aggressive behavior, caused by depression
(OSAP,1990,21O).
Parental substance abuse is a sickness and like any other sickness it should be
dealt with in the medical field. According to Peak (1998), " the treatment of drug
addiction with a medical model consists ofproviding detoxification, rebuilding physical
health, counseling, and offering support with social services" (221). Others may argue
that the offenders do not deserve treatment, just lock them up and throwaway the key.
The "punitive modality" or "just deserts" model support the idea ofhaving the offenders
go through withdrawal. Their belief is that drug addiction is a crime and you should
receive punishment, not treatment. According to Bohm and Haley (1997)," during that
phase ofcorrections the so-called medical model came to be used and, crime was seen as
symptomatic of personal illness in need ofcure through treatment" (323). Inmates had
25
dysfunction, low selfesteem, and poor communication (OSAP, 1990, 160).
OASP (1990) suggests drug addiction and alcohol use tends to run in families. A high
proportion of adult drug users are the offspring of alcoholics or other drug users. In
addition to familial drug use, women abusers are more likely than non-abusers to have a
history ofchildhood traumas including physical and sexual abuse, and are caught up in
intergenerational alcohol or drug abuse. As a result, addicted mothers lack appropriate
role models for parenting which leads to dysfunctional, deficient parenting. When parents
are drug addicted, their money, time, and emotional investments are diverted from the
needs ofthe child to the demands ofthe addiction. Very little guidelines or discipline is
provided. The daily activities are always inconsistent because of the pursuit of drugs.
Children may develop a range ofcoping mechanisms in order to survive in their chaotic
environment. Many of them will have impaired social and psychological functioning
because of negative parenting. The behaviors found in children of chemically involved
parents, coming to the attention of child protective services include: emotional
depression, manifested by a non-caring, defeated attitude; victim behavior characterized
by a desperate need for approval; antisocial, aggressive behavior, caused by depression
(OSAP,1990,21O).
Parental substance abuse is a sickness and like any other sickness it should be
dealt with in the medical field. According to Peak (1998), " the treatment of drug
addiction with a medical model consists ofproviding detoxification, rebuilding physical
health, counseling, and offering support with social services" (221). Others may argue
that the offenders do not deserve treatment, just lock them up and throwaway the key.
The "punitive modality" or "just deserts" model support the idea ofhaving the offenders
go through withdrawal. Their belief is that drug addiction is a crime and you should
receive punishment, not treatment. According to Bohm and Haley (1997)," during that
phase ofcorrections the so-called medical model came to be used and, crime was seen as
symptomatic of personal illness in need ofcure through treatment" (323). Inmates had
25
psychological assessments and diagnosis followed by treatment. Many parents are in
prison, however as an alternative to prison, drug treatment should be recommended.
Treating parental substance abuse in a drug treatment program will help revive the
parents so they will be able to provide for their children's basic needs. Parents will need
to abstain from drugs in order to accomplish what can be a difficult task for a person in
recovery. Treatment programs must be handled by medical specialists who are trained to
treat the offenders.
Children who are exhibiting conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency should be
treated in the mental health field. These children should be referred to mental health
services that work with children who receive counseling. These children have so many
issues to deal with such as being separated from their parents, to addressing their own
delinquent acts. They need to know that their parents are ill and their parent (s) need to be
in a drug program where they can get help. If reunification is not possible, the children
will need professional services to help them deal with such a severe crisis in their life.
Agencies must be willing to share information with each other so they can work
together with parents who have a substance abuse problem. Howard (2000) discusses,
how the Connecticut Department of Children and Families plans to make voluntary
substance abuse disorder assessments available to parents involved with child protective
service agency investigations. This will establish a direct link between the child welfare
and substance abuse treatment systems. This program uses a telephone referral system
operated by a managed care company with a network ofproviders including child welfare
workers with answers about parental substance use. The program will provide updated
treatment information. By linking the two together, the agency hopes to decrease the risk
ofcontinued abuse or neglect. The risks are reduced by encouraging the client to utilize
the services, facilitate admission to substance abuse treatment, and reduce the need ofout
ofhome placement (20).
Howard (2000) discusses how in the past, agencies have worked independently thus
26
psychological assessments and diagnosis followed by treatment. Many parents are in
prison, however as an alternative to prison, drug treatment should be recommended.
Treating parental substance abuse in a drug treatment program will help revive the
parents so they will be able to provide for their children's basic needs. Parents will need
to abstain from drugs in order to accomplish what can be a difficult task for a person in
recovery. Treatment programs must be handled by medical specialists who are trained to
treat the offenders.
Children who are exhibiting conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency should be
treated in the mental health field. These children should be referred to mental health
services that work with children who receive counseling. These children have so many
issues to deal with such as being separated from their parents, to addressing their own
delinquent acts. They need to know that their parents are ill and their parent (s) need to be
in a drug program where they can get help. If reunification is not possible, the children
will need professional services to help them deal with such a severe crisis in their life.
Agencies must be willing to share information with each other so they can work
together with parents who have a substance abuse problem. Howard (2000) discusses,
how the Connecticut Department of Children and Families plans to make voluntary
substance abuse disorder assessments available to parents involved with child protective
service agency investigations. This will establish a direct link between the child welfare
and substance abuse treatment systems. This program uses a telephone referral system
operated by a managed care company with a network ofproviders including child welfare
workers with answers about parental substance use. The program will provide updated
treatment information. By linking the two together, the agency hopes to decrease the risk
ofcontinued abuse or neglect. The risks are reduced by encouraging the client to utilize
the services, facilitate admission to substance abuse treatment, and reduce the need ofout
ofhome placement (20).
Howard (2000) discusses how in the past, agencies have worked independently thus
26
limiting services. Agencies need to work together to give a wide range ofsupport
services in hopes ofincreasing the effectiveness ofcounseling for the parent and child.
Many federal grants require public-private partnerships and multidisciplinary treatment
strategies formalized through a memorandum ofunderstanding. The focus for the future
must be family-oriented services providing comprehensive care, as well as, parenting and
family skills training. Planning and implementing programs for parental substance abuse
and juvenile delinquency is a good investment for the country (40). This research will
suggest parental substance abuse impacts children negatively in that it attributes to
conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency.
The literature presented so :fur supports my hypothesis in that parental substance has
an impact on juvenile delinquency and conduct disorders. It was suggested that poor
parenting increases with drug involvement. Parental substance abusers exhibit negative
parenting skills and children develop behavior problems, anxiety disorders, and affective
disorders. Some abused or neglected children develop aggressive behavior patterns, are at
risk of delinquency, violence, and other self-destructive behavior. The literature
suggested there is a relationship between parental substance and aggressive/destructive
behavior and conduct disorders in hospital treated children. Chapter IV will focus on the
methodology.
27
limiting services. Agencies need to work together to give a wide range ofsupport
services in hopes ofincreasing the effectiveness ofcounseling for the parent and child.
Many federal grants require public-private partnerships and multidisciplinary treatment
strategies formalized through a memorandum ofunderstanding. The focus for the future
must be family-oriented services providing comprehensive care, as well as, parenting and
family skills training. Planning and implementing programs for parental substance abuse
and juvenile delinquency is a good investment for the country (40). This research will
suggest parental substance abuse impacts children negatively in that it attributes to
conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency.
The literature presented so :fur supports my hypothesis in that parental substance has
an impact on juvenile delinquency and conduct disorders. It was suggested that poor
parenting increases with drug involvement. Parental substance abusers exhibit negative
parenting skills and children develop behavior problems, anxiety disorders, and affective
disorders. Some abused or neglected children develop aggressive behavior patterns, are at
risk of delinquency, violence, and other self-destructive behavior. The literature
suggested there is a relationship between parental substance and aggressive/destructive
behavior and conduct disorders in hospital treated children. Chapter IV will focus on the
methodology.
27
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY:
Much juvenile delinquency stems from poor parenting and parental substance abuse.
Parental substance abuse impacts children negatively in that it attributes to conduct
disorders and juvenile delinquency. A longitudinal study of parents and their children
will be conducted. The data collected is from secondary data sources by unobtrusive
measures. This study will be a qualitative and quantitative research ofreported cases of
child abuse and/or neglect, to the Mahoning County Children Services Board (MCCSB)
in Ohio. The hypothesis ofthis research is that parental substance abuse impacts children
negatively in that it attributes to conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency.
The sample was comprised of200 reported case files from MCCSB selected from a
systematic random sample, involving physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, or
combinations ofthe above. Permission was obtained from the Administrator ofthe Intake
and Abuse Unit ofChildren Services to review the cases (see Appendix B). A randomly
selected review ofthe records ofChildren Services foster and non-foster closed cases was
performed. Closed cases were chosen in preference to active cases, since they are more
fully documented, and their examination is less intrusive to the court and families. All
data was recorded with reference to a confidential identification number. No record of
any individual names will be recorded by the researcher. The data collection sheet
consisted ofdata on the parent and the child (see Appendix A).
For the purpose ofthis study, parental substance use included poly-drug use such as:
(a) alcohol, (b) opiates, (c) marijuana, (d) cocaine, (e) crack cocaine. According to the
DSM-IV (1994), substance abuse" is defmed as a maladaptive pattern ofsubstance use
manifested by recurrent and significant adverse consequences related to the repeated use
in situations in which it is physically hazardous, multiple legal problems, and recurrent
social and interpersonal problems" (182). Conduct disorder " was defined as
28
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY:
Much juvenile delinquency stems from poor parenting and parental substance abuse.
Parental substance abuse impacts children negatively in that it attributes to conduct
disorders and juvenile delinquency. A longitudinal study of parents and their children
will be conducted. The data collected is from secondary data sources by unobtrusive
measures. This study will be a qualitative and quantitative research ofreported cases of
child abuse and/or neglect, to the Mahoning County Children Services Board (MCCSB)
in Ohio. The hypothesis ofthis research is that parental substance abuse impacts children
negatively in that it attributes to conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency.
The sample was comprised of200 reported case files from MCCSB selected from a
systematic random sample, involving physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, or
combinations ofthe above. Permission was obtained from the Administrator ofthe Intake
and Abuse Unit ofChildren Services to review the cases (see Appendix B). A randomly
selected review ofthe records ofChildren Services foster and non-foster closed cases was
performed. Closed cases were chosen in preference to active cases, since they are more
fully documented, and their examination is less intrusive to the court and families. All
data was recorded with reference to a confidential identification number. No record of
any individual names will be recorded by the researcher. The data collection sheet
consisted ofdata on the parent and the child (see Appendix A).
For the purpose ofthis study, parental substance use included poly-drug use such as:
(a) alcohol, (b) opiates, (c) marijuana, (d) cocaine, (e) crack cocaine. According to the
DSM-IV (1994), substance abuse" is defmed as a maladaptive pattern ofsubstance use
manifested by recurrent and significant adverse consequences related to the repeated use
in situations in which it is physically hazardous, multiple legal problems, and recurrent
social and interpersonal problems" (182). Conduct disorder " was defined as
28
characterized by a pattern ofbehavior that violates the basic rights ofothers or major age 
appropriate societal norms or rules" (DSM-IV,1994,85).
According to Howard (2000), the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, 1974,
and reauthorized in 1990, and defmes child abuse and neglect as," at minimum, any
recent act or failure to act that results in imminent risk of serious harm, death, serious
physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation to a child under the age of 18,
by a parent or caretaker who is responsible for the child's welfare" (9). Juvenile
delinquency was established by the Juvenile Justice Center records. The data collected
was analyzed using SPSS/PC+. Descriptive and comparative statistics were completed.
The scope ofthe study is limited to the parental substance abuse cases only. Ifthere
were no parental relationships, the cases were removed from the study. In the next
chapter finding from this research are presented.
29
characterized by a pattern ofbehavior that violates the basic rights ofothers or major age 
appropriate societal norms or rules" (DSM-IV,1994,85).
According to Howard (2000), the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, 1974,
and reauthorized in 1990, and defmes child abuse and neglect as," at minimum, any
recent act or failure to act that results in imminent risk of serious harm, death, serious
physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation to a child under the age of 18,
by a parent or caretaker who is responsible for the child's welfare" (9). Juvenile
delinquency was established by the Juvenile Justice Center records. The data collected
was analyzed using SPSS/PC+. Descriptive and comparative statistics were completed.
The scope ofthe study is limited to the parental substance abuse cases only. Ifthere
were no parental relationships, the cases were removed from the study. In the next
chapter finding from this research are presented.
29
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS:
In the previous chapter, the methods for data collection and analysis were presented.
The data were collected from 200 closed cases files at the Mahoning County Children
Services which deals with child maltreatment. The cases were dated from 1986 through
the year 2000. The majority ofthe cases occurred in the years 1995 (n =23, 11.5%), 1996
(n = 25, 12.5%), 1998 (n =25, 12.5%) and 1999 (n =30, 15%). It should be noted that
these percents do not indicate that these years in general had more reported abuse; these
are just the results of the systematic sampling techniques used in this study. The data
were collected in an effort to describe the types ofabuse that children are suffering at the
hands oftheir parental figures. This study also examined the impact ofdrug /usage abuse
by the parental figure(s) and the negative behaviors exhibited by their children.
Description ofthe Parents Involved in the Study
Ofthe 200 cases reviewed, 183 of the cases involved the mother (n =183, 91,5%).
Seventy fathers (n=70, 35%) and 16 boyfriends (16,8%) were involved in the cases of
child maltreatment studied. According to the data, 68.9 percent (n=133,68.9%) mothers
were parental substance abusers while 23.0 percent (n = 43, 23.0%) of fathers were
parental substance abusers. The mother and father are both polysubstance abusers and
usually used more than one drug (see figure 1). The study revealed the mother's alcohol
use was 56.0 percent (n = 112, 56.0%), marijuana use 21.0 percent ( n = 42, 21.0 0%),
cocaine use 6.5 percent ( n =13, 6.5%), and crack-cocaine use 44.0 percent (n = 88,
44.0%). Heroin and prescription drugs were used by mothers however the study revealed
only one percent for both drugs. Fathers alcohol use was reported at 23.0 percent (n =46,
23.0%), marijuana use 6.5 percent (n =13,6.5%), cocaine use 4.5 percent (n= 9,4.5%),
crack cocaine use 13.0 percent ( n = 26, 13.0%). Heroin use was only two percent for
fathers.
30
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS:
In the previous chapter, the methods for data collection and analysis were presented.
The data were collected from 200 closed cases files at the Mahoning County Children
Services which deals with child maltreatment. The cases were dated from 1986 through
the year 2000. The majority ofthe cases occurred in the years 1995 (n =23, 11.5%), 1996
(n = 25, 12.5%), 1998 (n =25, 12.5%) and 1999 (n =30, 15%). It should be noted that
these percents do not indicate that these years in general had more reported abuse; these
are just the results of the systematic sampling techniques used in this study. The data
were collected in an effort to describe the types ofabuse that children are suffering at the
hands oftheir parental figures. This study also examined the impact ofdrug /usage abuse
by the parental figure(s) and the negative behaviors exhibited by their children.
Description ofthe Parents Involved in the Study
Ofthe 200 cases reviewed, 183 of the cases involved the mother (n =183, 91,5%).
Seventy fathers (n=70, 35%) and 16 boyfriends (16,8%) were involved in the cases of
child maltreatment studied. According to the data, 68.9 percent (n=133,68.9%) mothers
were parental substance abusers while 23.0 percent (n = 43, 23.0%) of fathers were
parental substance abusers. The mother and father are both polysubstance abusers and
usually used more than one drug (see figure 1). The study revealed the mother's alcohol
use was 56.0 percent (n = 112, 56.0%), marijuana use 21.0 percent ( n = 42, 21.0 0%),
cocaine use 6.5 percent ( n =13, 6.5%), and crack-cocaine use 44.0 percent (n = 88,
44.0%). Heroin and prescription drugs were used by mothers however the study revealed
only one percent for both drugs. Fathers alcohol use was reported at 23.0 percent (n =46,
23.0%), marijuana use 6.5 percent (n =13,6.5%), cocaine use 4.5 percent (n= 9,4.5%),
crack cocaine use 13.0 percent ( n = 26, 13.0%). Heroin use was only two percent for
fathers.
30
FIGURE 1
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Mother's Drug of Father's Drug of
Choice Choice
31
? Alcohol
~ Marijuana
? Cocaine
o Crack Cocaine
FIGURE 1
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Mother's Drug of Father's Drug of
Choice Choice
31
? Alcohol
~ Marijuana
? Cocaine
o Crack Cocaine
The data, the majority ofthe parental substance abusers were not married. Only 21.0
percent ( n = 42, 21.0%) were married, 67.5 percent ( n =135, 67.5%) were not married,
2.5 percent (n= 5.2.5%) divorced, 1.0 percent ( n = 2, 1.0%) widowed, 7.5 percent (n=
15, 7.5%) separated. Racial composition data was also collected and it was found that
54.0 percent (n= 108,54.0%) were African-American and 46.0 percent (n = 92, 46.0 %)
were Caucasian. The primary location ofparental substance abusers were located on the
southside of Youngstown the county seat for Mahoning County. 43.0 percent of the
individuals lives on the southside, 20.0 percent on the northside, 10.0 percent on the east
side, 3.0 percent on the westside, and 29.0 percent outside ofYoungstown. ( see Tables
1,2,3). The majority ofthe cases therefore involves single African-Americans women
living on the southside ofYoungstown, Ohio.
Table 1
Parents Marital Status
Percent
Married 21%
Never Married 67.5%
Divorced 2.5%
Widowed 1.0%
Separated 7.5%
Table 2
Race
Percent
African-American 54%
Caucasian 46%
32
Table 3
Location
Percent
Southside 43%
Northside 20%
Eastside 10%
Westside 3%
Outside ofYoungstown 29%
The data, the majority ofthe parental substance abusers were not married. Only 21.0
percent ( n = 42, 21.0%) were married, 67.5 percent ( n =135, 67.5%) were not married,
2.5 percent (n= 5.2.5%) divorced, 1.0 percent ( n = 2, 1.0%) widowed, 7.5 percent (n=
15, 7.5%) separated. Racial composition data was also collected and it was found that
54.0 percent (n= 108,54.0%) were African-American and 46.0 percent (n = 92, 46.0 %)
were Caucasian. The primary location ofparental substance abusers were located on the
southside of Youngstown the county seat for Mahoning County. 43.0 percent of the
individuals lives on the southside, 20.0 percent on the northside, 10.0 percent on the east
side, 3.0 percent on the westside, and 29.0 percent outside ofYoungstown. ( see Tables
1,2,3). The majority ofthe cases therefore involves single African-Americans women
living on the southside ofYoungstown, Ohio.
Table 1
Parents Marital Status
Percent
Married 21%
Never Married 67.5%
Divorced 2.5%
Widowed 1.0%
Separated 7.5%
Table 2
Race
Percent
African-American 54%
Caucasian 46%
32
Table 3
Location
Percent
Southside 43%
Northside 20%
Eastside 10%
Westside 3%
Outside ofYoungstown 29%
Abuse Data
Once demographic data were collected, a review ofthe type ofabuse was examined. It
was found that 36.5 percent (n = 73, 36.5%) the cases dealt with physical abuse, 15.0
percent ( n = 30, 15.0%) with sexual abuse, and 68.0 percent ( n = 67, 68.0%) with
neglect ofchildren. The study revealed that neglect was found to be high among children
whose parents are substance abusers. In reviewing the cases the initial referral could have
been a simple home evaluation, however after the caseworker interviewed the client's
drug use, neglect was often substantiated. (See Figure 2).
Figure 2
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
f---
I---
f---
-
-I
33
IIPhysical
1m Sexual
? Neglect
Abuse Data
Once demographic data were collected, a review ofthe type ofabuse was examined. It
was found that 36.5 percent (n = 73, 36.5%) the cases dealt with physical abuse, 15.0
percent ( n = 30, 15.0%) with sexual abuse, and 68.0 percent ( n = 67, 68.0%) with
neglect ofchildren. The study revealed that neglect was found to be high among children
whose parents are substance abusers. In reviewing the cases the initial referral could have
been a simple home evaluation, however after the caseworker interviewed the client's
drug use, neglect was often substantiated. (See Figure 2).
Figure 2
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
f---
I---
f---
-
-I
33
IIPhysical
1m Sexual
? Neglect
Description ofthe Children Involved in the Study
The study revealed that 6.5 percent (N=13, 6.50%) ofthe case reviewed, children were
involved with the juvenile justice center for runaway.
The children had poor attendance and exhibited behavior problems in school. Of
these children 56.0 percent ( n = 112 ,56.0%), had poor school attendance. Encouraging
news was that 18.5 percent (n = 43, 18.5%), had good attendance. Ofthese children 41.5
percent (n = 137,41.5%) had behavior problems. The study also revealed that those who
had poor attendance also had failing grades as well. Behavior problems included
disorderly conduct, insubordination and suspension according to the school records (See
Figure 3).
Figure 3
60% .,.-----------.....,
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
34
? Behavior Problem
mGood
mPoor
Description ofthe Children Involved in the Study
The study revealed that 6.5 percent (N=13, 6.50%) ofthe case reviewed, children were
involved with the juvenile justice center for runaway.
The children had poor attendance and exhibited behavior problems in school. Of
these children 56.0 percent ( n = 112 ,56.0%), had poor school attendance. Encouraging
news was that 18.5 percent (n = 43, 18.5%), had good attendance. Ofthese children 41.5
percent (n = 137,41.5%) had behavior problems. The study also revealed that those who
had poor attendance also had failing grades as well. Behavior problems included
disorderly conduct, insubordination and suspension according to the school records (See
Figure 3).
Figure 3
60% .,.-----------.....,
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
34
? Behavior Problem
mGood
mPoor
Out ofthe 200 cases reviewed all the data revealed that there was at least one child
present in the home, thereafter referred to as the fIrst child. There were two children
present in 99.0 percent ofthe homes thereafter referred to as the second child. The third
child present in the home was 23.5 percent thereafter referred to as the third child. The
fourth child and on made no statistical significance thereafter referred to as the fourth
child. The study revealed that 80.6 percent ofthe oldest children in school was more
likely to have poor attendance ifthe mother was a substance abuser, the chi square is (X2
= 5.45, df=1.02-.02). The oldest children who demonstrated destructive behavior 9.8
percent were more likely to have mothers who were substance abusers, the chi square is
(X2 = 4.04,df-=l, p2 =.04)). The oldest children who exhibited physical aggression 19.5
percent were more likely to have mothers who were substance abusers as well, the chi
square is (X22 = 3.86, df= I,P2 = .03). The study revealed that a total of36.0 percent of
the children exhibited physical aggression, and a total of32.0 percent ofthe children
were involved with the juvenile justice system at one time in their lives.
The second child's conduct in school seemed to be significant ifthe mother was a
substance abuser. The second child who exhibited disorderly conduct 93.0 percent were
more likely to have mothers who were substance abusers, the chi square is (X2 = 11.28, df
= 2,P2 =.004). The number ofproblems reported by the school ofthe third child were
small in number, however every time disorderly conduct was reported, the mother was a
substance abuser. Unfortunately no statistical significance between abusing mothers and
non-abusing mothers was present. Ifa father was present in the home, he was not a major
influence on these children to make a statistical significance.
The data collected showed that children in general were being aggressive and
35
Out ofthe 200 cases reviewed all the data revealed that there was at least one child
present in the home, thereafter referred to as the fIrst child. There were two children
present in 99.0 percent ofthe homes thereafter referred to as the second child. The third
child present in the home was 23.5 percent thereafter referred to as the third child. The
fourth child and on made no statistical significance thereafter referred to as the fourth
child. The study revealed that 80.6 percent ofthe oldest children in school was more
likely to have poor attendance ifthe mother was a substance abuser, the chi square is (X2
= 5.45, df=1.02-.02). The oldest children who demonstrated destructive behavior 9.8
percent were more likely to have mothers who were substance abusers, the chi square is
(X2 = 4.04,df-=l, p2 =.04)). The oldest children who exhibited physical aggression 19.5
percent were more likely to have mothers who were substance abusers as well, the chi
square is (X22 = 3.86, df= I,P2 = .03). The study revealed that a total of36.0 percent of
the children exhibited physical aggression, and a total of32.0 percent ofthe children
were involved with the juvenile justice system at one time in their lives.
The second child's conduct in school seemed to be significant ifthe mother was a
substance abuser. The second child who exhibited disorderly conduct 93.0 percent were
more likely to have mothers who were substance abusers, the chi square is (X2 = 11.28, df
= 2,P2 =.004). The number ofproblems reported by the school ofthe third child were
small in number, however every time disorderly conduct was reported, the mother was a
substance abuser. Unfortunately no statistical significance between abusing mothers and
non-abusing mothers was present. Ifa father was present in the home, he was not a major
influence on these children to make a statistical significance.
The data collected showed that children in general were being aggressive and
35
exhibited destructive behavior in school. Records from the juvenile justice center
indicated charges were brought against these children for domestic violence. Data from
Mahoning County Children Services records indicated that these children had exhibited
physical aggression before and during custody as well.
Overall the data from the research reveals that parental substance abuse contributes to
conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency. The data researched on the 200 cases did
not reveal a substantial significant difference after the third child. After the third child,
the data revealed that these children were babies and young children. These children were
not old enough to manifest negative behavior patterns. These children were not old
enough to enter school or the juvenile justice system where conduct disorders could be
recorded. Discussion and conclusions are presented in the next chapter.
36
exhibited destructive behavior in school. Records from the juvenile justice center
indicated charges were brought against these children for domestic violence. Data from
Mahoning County Children Services records indicated that these children had exhibited
physical aggression before and during custody as well.
Overall the data from the research reveals that parental substance abuse contributes to
conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency. The data researched on the 200 cases did
not reveal a substantial significant difference after the third child. After the third child,
the data revealed that these children were babies and young children. These children were
not old enough to manifest negative behavior patterns. These children were not old
enough to enter school or the juvenile justice system where conduct disorders could be
recorded. Discussion and conclusions are presented in the next chapter.
36
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS:
The literature included in the study supports the hypothesis that substance abuse
contributes to conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency. The results ofthe study
presented in Chapter III and IV do in fact show that children are physically aggressive,
exhibit destructive behavior, have poor school attendance, and exhibit disorderly conduct
in school ifparental substance abuse occurs. After completing the research, the records
selected did not allow for a comparative study. The main recommendation for future
work is that a longitudinal study be conducted with the parent's permission. The parents
would have to be parental substance abusers with children who exhibited conduct
disorders and juvenile delinquency. To see the long term impacts ofthese behaviors on
their children.
As a way to help lessen juvenile delinquency and conduct disorders in youth, family
therapy should be practiced since these children have increased the foster care
population. This has only caused the family to breakdown and eventually dissolving the
family. It is so important to keep the family intact iftherapy is successful this could
possibly stop generational substance abuse and juvenile delinquency. Putting the
delinquent in foster care is not a solution to parental substance abuse. The frrst goal
should be keeping the family together by working with a case manager. The case
manager will assist the parent with receiving outpatient drug treatment and family
counseling. The counselor will be trained to deal with the juvenile delinquent and the
parent's drug use. The goal ofthe counselor is to get the parent to be drug free and get the
37
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS:
The literature included in the study supports the hypothesis that substance abuse
contributes to conduct disorders and juvenile delinquency. The results ofthe study
presented in Chapter III and IV do in fact show that children are physically aggressive,
exhibit destructive behavior, have poor school attendance, and exhibit disorderly conduct
in school ifparental substance abuse occurs. After completing the research, the records
selected did not allow for a comparative study. The main recommendation for future
work is that a longitudinal study be conducted with the parent's permission. The parents
would have to be parental substance abusers with children who exhibited conduct
disorders and juvenile delinquency. To see the long term impacts ofthese behaviors on
their children.
As a way to help lessen juvenile delinquency and conduct disorders in youth, family
therapy should be practiced since these children have increased the foster care
population. This has only caused the family to breakdown and eventually dissolving the
family. It is so important to keep the family intact iftherapy is successful this could
possibly stop generational substance abuse and juvenile delinquency. Putting the
delinquent in foster care is not a solution to parental substance abuse. The frrst goal
should be keeping the family together by working with a case manager. The case
manager will assist the parent with receiving outpatient drug treatment and family
counseling. The counselor will be trained to deal with the juvenile delinquent and the
parent's drug use. The goal ofthe counselor is to get the parent to be drug free and get the
37
delinquent child to begin to exhibit good behavior. The case should only be closed when
all the objectives have been met. This solution would certainly save the government
money and keep the family intact as well.
38
delinquent child to begin to exhibit good behavior. The case should only be closed when
all the objectives have been met. This solution would certainly save the government
money and keep the family intact as well.
38
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Disorders, fourth edition, Text Revision. Washington, D.C., American Psychiatric
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Bentler, M. P., Newcomb, D., & Stein, J. (1993). Differential Effects OfParent and
Grandparent Drug Use on Behavior Problems ofMale andFemale Children, 29 (1),
31-43
Adolescence: Early Childhood Personality andEnvironmental Precursors. Child
Development, 59, 336-355
Bohm, M. R. & Haley, N. K. (1997). Introduction to Criminal Justice. Westerville,
Ohio: GlencoelMcGraw-Hill
Carey, G., Taylor, J. (1998). Antisocial Behavior, Substance Use, andSomatization in
Families ofAdolescent DrugAbusers andAdolescent Controls. AM J. Drug Alcohol
Abuse 24, (4), 635-646
Davis, S.K., (1990). Chemical Dependency in Women: A Description ofits Effect and
Outcomes on Adequate Parenting. Journal ofSubstance Abuse Treatment. 7,225-232
Dore, M., Kauffman, M., Lanigranfort, E., & Zlupko, E. (1996). Psychosocial
Functioning and Treatment Needs ofLatency-Age Childrenfrom Drug Involved
Families, 77(10), 1-9
Dore, M. Martha, (1998). Impact andRelationship ofSubstance Abuse and Child
Maltreatment: Risk andResiliency Factors, What Research Tell Us
Field, T. (1992). Infants ofDepressedMothers Development andPsychopathology,
4,49-66.
Foster, S., Macchetto, P., & Reid, J., (1999). No Safe Haven: Children ofSubstance 
Abusing Parents. New York, NY: The National Center On Addiction and Substance
Abuse at Columbia University (CASA).
39
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Amercian Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic andStatistical Manual ofMental
Disorders, fourth edition, Text Revision. Washington, D.C., American Psychiatric
Association
Bentler, M. P., Newcomb, D., & Stein, J. (1993). Differential Effects OfParent and
Grandparent Drug Use on Behavior Problems ofMale andFemale Children, 29 (1),
31-43
Adolescence: Early Childhood Personality andEnvironmental Precursors. Child
Development, 59, 336-355
Bohm, M. R. & Haley, N. K. (1997). Introduction to Criminal Justice. Westerville,
Ohio: GlencoelMcGraw-Hill
Carey, G., Taylor, J. (1998). Antisocial Behavior, Substance Use, andSomatization in
Families ofAdolescent DrugAbusers andAdolescent Controls. AM J. Drug Alcohol
Abuse 24, (4), 635-646
Davis, S.K., (1990). Chemical Dependency in Women: A Description ofits Effect and
Outcomes on Adequate Parenting. Journal ofSubstance Abuse Treatment. 7,225-232
Dore, M., Kauffman, M., Lanigranfort, E., & Zlupko, E. (1996). Psychosocial
Functioning and Treatment Needs ofLatency-Age Childrenfrom Drug Involved
Families, 77(10), 1-9
Dore, M. Martha, (1998). Impact andRelationship ofSubstance Abuse and Child
Maltreatment: Risk andResiliency Factors, What Research Tell Us
Field, T. (1992). Infants ofDepressedMothers Development andPsychopathology,
4,49-66.
Foster, S., Macchetto, P., & Reid, J., (1999). No Safe Haven: Children ofSubstance 
Abusing Parents. New York, NY: The National Center On Addiction and Substance
Abuse at Columbia University (CASA).
39
Gabel, S., Schindledecker, R(1993). Parental Substance Abuse andIts
Relationship to Severe Aggression andAntisocial Behavior in Youth 2, (1), 48-58.
Gold, S.M. (1993) Cocaine. Plenum Medical Book Company: Plenum Publishing
Corporation
Graham V., Joffe, A., & Werner, 1. (1999) Screening, Early Identification, and Office 
BasedIntervention with Children and Youth Living in Substance-Abusing Families, 5,
(2), 4-18.
Howard, 1. B., Beckwith, L., Rodnig, C., & Kropenske, V. (1989). The development of
Young Children ofSubstance Abusing Parent: Insights From Seven Years are
Intervention andReWomen Research Zero to Three, 9 (5), 8-12
Howard, Judy (2000). Substance Abuse Treatmentfor Persons With ChildAbuse and
Neglect Issues
Humphries, D. (1999). Crack Mothers, Pregnancy, Drugs, and The Media. Columbus,
Ohio: Ohio State University Press
Jarvis, S. (1990). Drug Use AmongRunaway andHomeless Youth: A Southeastern
Perspective, The Southeastern Network ofYouth andFamily Services
Kandel, B. D. (1990). Parenting Styles, Drug Use, andChildren's Adjustment in Families
ofyoungAdults 52 (1), 184-196.
Maher, L., Curtis.,R (1992). Women on the Edge ofCrime: Crack-Cocaine and the
Changing Contests ofStreet Level Sex work in New York City. Crime law, and
Social Change, 18, 221- 258.
Markowitz, R (1993). Dynamics and Treatment Issues With Children ofDrug and?
AlcoholAbusers. S.L.A Straussner (Ed.). Clinical Work with Substance Abusing
Clients 214-232
Moses, A, (1999). Exposure to Violence, Depression, andHostility in a Sample ofInner
City High School Youth, 22, 21-32.
Moss, B.H., Vanyukov, M., Majumder, P.P., Kirischi, L., & Tarter, E. R, ( 1995).
40
Gabel, S., Schindledecker, R(1993). Parental Substance Abuse andIts
Relationship to Severe Aggression andAntisocial Behavior in Youth 2, (1), 48-58.
Gold, S.M. (1993) Cocaine. Plenum Medical Book Company: Plenum Publishing
Corporation
Graham V., Joffe, A., & Werner, 1. (1999) Screening, Early Identification, and Office 
BasedIntervention with Children and Youth Living in Substance-Abusing Families, 5,
(2), 4-18.
Howard, 1. B., Beckwith, L., Rodnig, C., & Kropenske, V. (1989). The development of
Young Children ofSubstance Abusing Parent: Insights From Seven Years are
Intervention andReWomen Research Zero to Three, 9 (5), 8-12
Howard, Judy (2000). Substance Abuse Treatmentfor Persons With ChildAbuse and
Neglect Issues
Humphries, D. (1999). Crack Mothers, Pregnancy, Drugs, and The Media. Columbus,
Ohio: Ohio State University Press
Jarvis, S. (1990). Drug Use AmongRunaway andHomeless Youth: A Southeastern
Perspective, The Southeastern Network ofYouth andFamily Services
Kandel, B. D. (1990). Parenting Styles, Drug Use, andChildren's Adjustment in Families
ofyoungAdults 52 (1), 184-196.
Maher, L., Curtis.,R (1992). Women on the Edge ofCrime: Crack-Cocaine and the
Changing Contests ofStreet Level Sex work in New York City. Crime law, and
Social Change, 18, 221- 258.
Markowitz, R (1993). Dynamics and Treatment Issues With Children ofDrug and?
AlcoholAbusers. S.L.A Straussner (Ed.). Clinical Work with Substance Abusing
Clients 214-232
Moses, A, (1999). Exposure to Violence, Depression, andHostility in a Sample ofInner
City High School Youth, 22, 21-32.
Moss, B.H., Vanyukov, M., Majumder, P.P., Kirischi, L., & Tarter, E. R, ( 1995).
40
Prebubertal Sons ofSubstance Abusers: Influences ofParental and Familial
Substance Abuse on Behavioral Disposition, IQ, andSchoolAchievement
Newcomb, M.D., Bentler, P.M. (1988). The Impact ofFamily Context, Deviant
Attitudes, andEmotions Distress on Adolescent Drug Use: Longitudinal Latent 
Variable Analyses ofMothers and Their Children. Journal ofResearch in Personality,
22, 154-176.
Office For Substance Abuse Prevention (1990). Identifying the Needs ofDrug-Affected
Children: Public Policy Issues. Rockville, Maryland: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services; Public Health Services; Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental
Health Administration
Office For Substance Abuse Prevention Monograph 2 (1990). Prevention ofMental
Disorders, Alcohol and Other Drug Use in Children andAdolescents. Rockville,
Maryland: U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services; Public Health Services;
Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health Administration
Peak, J., Kenneth (1998). Justice Administration (pp. 1-21)
Schenling, D. (1994). Prenatal cocaine exposure and childhoodpsychopathology: A
DevelopedAnalysis. American Journal ofOrthopsychiatry, 64, 9-19.
Simons, R.L., Robertson, J.F, , and Dawns, W.R., (1989). The Nature ofthe Association
Between Parental Rejection andDelinquent Behavior. Journal ofYouth and
Adolescence, 18,297-310
Subcommittee on Human Services ofthe Committee on Ways and Means U.S. House of
Representatives (1990). The Enemy Within: Crack-Cocaine andAmerica's Families
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office
The Administration on Children, Youth and Families (1994). The Study ofthe Impact on
Services Delivery ofFamily Substance Abuse
United States Department ofHealth and Human Services (1998). Blending Perspective
andBuilding Common Ground A Report to Congress Substance Abuse and Child
41
Prebubertal Sons ofSubstance Abusers: Influences ofParental and Familial
Substance Abuse on Behavioral Disposition, IQ, andSchoolAchievement
Newcomb, M.D., Bentler, P.M. (1988). The Impact ofFamily Context, Deviant
Attitudes, andEmotions Distress on Adolescent Drug Use: Longitudinal Latent 
Variable Analyses ofMothers and Their Children. Journal ofResearch in Personality,
22, 154-176.
Office For Substance Abuse Prevention (1990). Identifying the Needs ofDrug-Affected
Children: Public Policy Issues. Rockville, Maryland: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services; Public Health Services; Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental
Health Administration
Office For Substance Abuse Prevention Monograph 2 (1990). Prevention ofMental
Disorders, Alcohol and Other Drug Use in Children andAdolescents. Rockville,
Maryland: U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services; Public Health Services;
Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health Administration
Peak, J., Kenneth (1998). Justice Administration (pp. 1-21)
Schenling, D. (1994). Prenatal cocaine exposure and childhoodpsychopathology: A
DevelopedAnalysis. American Journal ofOrthopsychiatry, 64, 9-19.
Simons, R.L., Robertson, J.F, , and Dawns, W.R., (1989). The Nature ofthe Association
Between Parental Rejection andDelinquent Behavior. Journal ofYouth and
Adolescence, 18,297-310
Subcommittee on Human Services ofthe Committee on Ways and Means U.S. House of
Representatives (1990). The Enemy Within: Crack-Cocaine andAmerica's Families
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office
The Administration on Children, Youth and Families (1994). The Study ofthe Impact on
Services Delivery ofFamily Substance Abuse
United States Department ofHealth and Human Services (1998). Blending Perspective
andBuilding Common Ground A Report to Congress Substance Abuse and Child
41
Protection, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1999
United States General Accounting Office (1998). Drug Abuse andFoster Care
GAOIHEHS 98-182.
Vallant, G.E., Milofsky, E.S. (1982). The Etiology ofAlcoholism: A Prospective
Viewpoint. American Psychologist, 37,494-503.
42
Protection, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1999
United States General Accounting Office (1998). Drug Abuse andFoster Care
GAOIHEHS 98-182.
Vallant, G.E., Milofsky, E.S. (1982). The Etiology ofAlcoholism: A Prospective
Viewpoint. American Psychologist, 37,494-503.
42
APPENDIX A
CODE SHEET
APPENDIX A
CODE SHEET
CODE SHEET
1. Case Number _
2. Parties Involved / Age (Gender / Height / Weight)
Mother Father Boyfriend __
Child
Ht.
M / F Child M / F Child M / F Child
/ Wt.__ Ht.__/ Wt.__ Ht.__/ Wt.__ Ht.
M/F
/ Wt.
Child M / F Child M / F Child M / F Child
Ht.__/ Wt.__ Ht.__/ Wt.__ Ht.__/ Wt.__ Ht.
M/F
/ Wt.
Maternal Grandfather
Paternal Grandfather
Cousin M / F Cousin M / F
Divorced
Asian-American
_ Hispanic or Latino
Never Married
_ Separated
Caucasian
Pacific Islander
Married
Widowed
Maternal Grandmother
Paternal Grandmother
Uncle Aunt
Parent's Marital Status
Race African-American
Native American
3.
4.
Parent/Child Conflict
_ Adoptive Home
Residential Placement
Placement with Relatives
5.
6.
Zip Code
Type Abuse _
Neglect _
Dependency Single Parent Other/Investigation Domestic Conflict
Home Evaluation Out-of-Town Investigation
7. Date Report Received
8. Type ofPlacement Request Foster Home
_ Receiving Home _ Group Home
Substitute Care Goal Reunite with Parents
_ Plan for Adoption
CODE SHEET
1. Case Number _
2. Parties Involved / Age (Gender / Height / Weight)
Mother Father Boyfriend __
Child
Ht.
M / F Child M / F Child M / F Child
/ Wt.__ Ht.__/ Wt.__ Ht.__/ Wt.__ Ht.
M/F
/ Wt.
Child M / F Child M / F Child M / F Child
Ht.__/ Wt.__ Ht.__/ Wt.__ Ht.__/ Wt.__ Ht.
M/F
/ Wt.
Maternal Grandfather
Paternal Grandfather
Cousin M / F Cousin M / F
Divorced
Asian-American
_ Hispanic or Latino
Never Married
_ Separated
Caucasian
Pacific Islander
Married
Widowed
Maternal Grandmother
Paternal Grandmother
Uncle Aunt
Parent's Marital Status
Race African-American
Native American
3.
4.
Parent/Child Conflict
_ Adoptive Home
Residential Placement
Placement with Relatives
5.
6.
Zip Code
Type Abuse _
Neglect _
Dependency Single Parent Other/Investigation Domestic Conflict
Home Evaluation Out-of-Town Investigation
7. Date Report Received
8. Type ofPlacement Request Foster Home
_ Receiving Home _ Group Home
Substitute Care Goal Reunite with Parents
_ Plan for Adoption
10. History ofParent's Substance Abuse
Mother Abuse No
Substance ofChoice: Alcohol
Crack-Cocaine
__Opiates
Yes
__Marijuana
__Prescription Drugs
Cocaine
Heroin
Father Abuse
Substance ofChoice:
No
Alcohol
Crack-Cocaine
__Opiates
Yes
__Marijuana
__Prescription Drugs
Cocaine
Heroin
11. Did Mother Use Alcohol/Drugs During Pregnancy
No Yes
Substance ofChoice: Alcohol
Crack-Cocaine
__Opiates
__Marijuana
__Prescription Drugs
Cocaine
Heroin
10. History ofParent's Substance Abuse
Mother Abuse No
Substance ofChoice: Alcohol
Crack-Cocaine
__Opiates
Yes
__Marijuana
__Prescription Drugs
Cocaine
Heroin
Father Abuse
Substance ofChoice:
No
Alcohol
Crack-Cocaine
__Opiates
Yes
__Marijuana
__Prescription Drugs
Cocaine
Heroin
11. Did Mother Use Alcohol/Drugs During Pregnancy
No Yes
Substance ofChoice: Alcohol
Crack-Cocaine
__Opiates
__Marijuana
__Prescription Drugs
Cocaine
Heroin
Behavior Patterns for Each Child
Child # 1
Age__ Grade
YIN Hyperactive I ADHD
YIN Enuresis
YIN Encopresis
Y IN Lying
YIN Stealing
YIN JJC involvement
YI N violent
YIN Sexual Acting Out YIN Swearing
YIN Alcohol /Drug Use YIN Destructive Behavior
YIN Peer Problems YIN Temper Tantrums
YIN Fire-Setting YIN cigarette Smoking
YIN Developmental Delays YIN Physical Aggression
Y IN probation YIN detention
YIN history ofabuse __(type) YIN counseling
Others -------------
Explanation ofthe Above: _
School Information:
Attendance
Special Program _
Behavior Problems _
Delinquency Record:
Age offirst encounter __
Nature offirst encounter ------------
Number ofarrest
Reason for each arrest (list charges) _
Medical Record:
Child on medication Yes
Why is the child on medication:
Name ofmedications:
No
Illness __Allergies
Control Behavior
Asthma
Behavior Patterns for Each Child
Child # 1
Age__ Grade
YIN Hyperactive I ADHD
YIN Enuresis
YIN Encopresis
Y IN Lying
YIN Stealing
YIN JJC involvement
YI N violent
YIN Sexual Acting Out YIN Swearing
YIN Alcohol /Drug Use YIN Destructive Behavior
YIN Peer Problems YIN Temper Tantrums
YIN Fire-Setting YIN cigarette Smoking
YIN Developmental Delays YIN Physical Aggression
Y IN probation YIN detention
YIN history ofabuse __(type) YIN counseling
Others -------------
Explanation ofthe Above: _
School Information:
Attendance
Special Program _
Behavior Problems _
Delinquency Record:
Age offirst encounter __
Nature offirst encounter ------------
Number ofarrest
Reason for each arrest (list charges) _
Medical Record:
Child on medication Yes
Why is the child on medication:
Name ofmedications:
No
Illness __Allergies
Control Behavior
Asthma
APPENDIXB
LETTER OF SUPPORT
APPENDIXB
LETTER OF SUPPORT
..
MAHONING COUNTY CHILDREN SERVICES
COUNTY ANNEX BUILDING
2801 MARKET STREET - ROOM 206
- YOUNGSTOWN, OHIO 44507-1671 PHONE: (330) 783-0411 ? FAX: (330) 783-5342
May 31, 2000
Attention: Thesis Committee
Criminal Justice Department
Youngstown State University
2091 Cushwa Hall
Youngstown, Ohio 44555
Dear Thesis Committee:
Anita Wainwright has submitted a letter stating she is doing a Thesis on Parental
Substance Abuse and wouldlike permission to view the close files. I have given
permission for her to review the closed files.
I am excited about the study and I'm looking forward to seeing the conclusion.
Sincerely,
Brad Price, ChiefSupervisor
Intake Services Department
BPlbks
For Children Who Need a Better Tomorrow
RECYCLED PAPER
..
MAHONING COUNTY CHILDREN SERVICES
COUNTY ANNEX BUILDING
2801 MARKET STREET - ROOM 206
- YOUNGSTOWN, OHIO 44507-1671 PHONE: (330) 783-0411 ? FAX: (330) 783-5342
May 31, 2000
Attention: Thesis Committee
Criminal Justice Department
Youngstown State University
2091 Cushwa Hall
Youngstown, Ohio 44555
Dear Thesis Committee:
Anita Wainwright has submitted a letter stating she is doing a Thesis on Parental
Substance Abuse and wouldlike permission to view the close files. I have given
permission for her to review the closed files.
I am excited about the study and I'm looking forward to seeing the conclusion.
Sincerely,
Brad Price, ChiefSupervisor
Intake Services Department
BPlbks
For Children Who Need a Better Tomorrow
RECYCLED PAPER
APPENDIXC
HUMAN SUBJECTS LETTER
APPENDIXC
HUMAN SUBJECTS LETTER
Youngstown State University / One University Plaza / Youngstown, Ohio 44555-0001
June 21, 2000
Dr. Tammy A. King, Assistant Professor
Ms. Anita Wainwright, Graduate Student
Department of Criminal Justice
UNIVERSITY
RE: HSRC Protocol #130-2000
Dear Dr. King and Ms. Wainwright:
The Human Subjects Research Committee has reviewed your Protocol, "Parental
Substance Abuse Attributes to Conduct Disorders and Juvenile Delinquency,"
(HSRC #130-2000), and determined that it is exempt from full committee review based
on a DHHS Category 4 exemption.
Any changes in your research activity should be promptly reported to the Human
Subjects Research Committee and may not be initiated without HSRC approval except
where necessary to eliminate hazard to human subjects. Any unanticipated problems
involving risks to subjects should also be promptly reported to the Human Subjects
Research Committee.
The HSRC would like to extend its best wishes to you in the conduct of this study.
Sincerely,,-----.--y'
/<:;. L" I ',,_ /?r""i .;..-;-\-, (\::
~--'/~ .._~ ., ". ...... "-
Eric Lewandowski
Administrative Co-chair
Human Subjects Research Committee
ECLIcc
Youngstown State University / One University Plaza / Youngstown, Ohio 44555-0001
June 21, 2000
Dr. Tammy A. King, Assistant Professor
Ms. Anita Wainwright, Graduate Student
Department of Criminal Justice
UNIVERSITY
RE: HSRC Protocol #130-2000
Dear Dr. King and Ms. Wainwright:
The Human Subjects Research Committee has reviewed your Protocol, "Parental
Substance Abuse Attributes to Conduct Disorders and Juvenile Delinquency,"
(HSRC #130-2000), and determined that it is exempt from full committee review based
on a DHHS Category 4 exemption.
Any changes in your research activity should be promptly reported to the Human
Subjects Research Committee and may not be initiated without HSRC approval except
where necessary to eliminate hazard to human subjects. Any unanticipated problems
involving risks to subjects should also be promptly reported to the Human Subjects
Research Committee.
The HSRC would like to extend its best wishes to you in the conduct of this study.
Sincerely,,-----.--y'
/<:;. L" I ',,_ /?r""i .;..-;-\-, (\::
~--'/~ .._~ ., ". ...... "-
Eric Lewandowski
Administrative Co-chair
Human Subjects Research Committee
ECLIcc